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A Brief Journey through Italian Jewish History

Author: Published on: Published in: Diaspora

(Author: Bernard Katz, Vol. 64, No. 2, Rosh Hashanah 2009)

 

  • Feature image: Scuola Grande Spagnola Synagogue Venice

 

The history of Italian Jewry (and more particularly Roman Jewry) is of unique interest as it spans over twenty centuries and more than half a dozen civilizations, namely the Roman Empire, the Papacy, the Renaissance, the Counter-Reformation, the medieval city republics, unified Italy, modern totalitarianism and the present era.

The Jewish historian Cecil Roth writes that Italy is the only European country which never knew a general persecution of the Jews, and in no other part of the world did such a feeling of friendliness prevail as in Italy between the people and the Jewish population.1 He has also written that there was no other country in Europe where the Jewish contribution to cultural life was proportionately so great.

Rome’s Jewish community is probably the oldest in the world.2 Rome is the only city in the Western world in which Jewish settlement remained uninterrupted from remotest times to the present day.

The first recorded presence of Jews in Rome was in the year 161 BCE. After the Jews revolted against the Greeks, Judah Maccabee sent two ambassadors, Jason ben Eleazar and Eupolemos ben Johanan, on a mission to Rome to establish friendly relations. They appeared before the Senate and received written assurances of friendship and protection. These are the first Jews to be in Italy, or to visit Europe, who are known to us by name.3

In 63 BCE, the Roman general Pompey invaded and conquered Judah and renamed it Judea. Pompey entered the Holy of Holies, where the High Priest only entered on Yom Kippur, and was surprised by its emptiness, having expected to find the grandeur he was accustomed to in the Roman temples. In later years, the malicious rumour was spread that he had found there the central figure of Jewish adoration, an ass’s head.4 Henceforth, Judea effectively became a province of the Roman Empire and the first contingents of Jewish slaves were sent to Rome.

The early Roman emperors became allies of the Jews and accorded them special privileges. Jews favoured Julius Caesar in the civil war against Pompey and Caesar returned the favour by permitting the walls of Jerusalem to be rebuilt, allowing Jews greater autonomy in their communal affairs and by not requiring Jews to worship the emperor as a deity as was required of Rome’s other citizens.5 The Temple of the Divine Julius houses the cremated remains of Julius Caesar, who went to considerable trouble to win the sympathy of the Jews. When he was assassinated in 44 BCE, Jews mourned his death more than any other section of the population.6

Julius Caesar’s benevolent policy was continued by Augustus and Claudius. The only exception to this early trend was Caligula, the emperor who elevated his favourite horse to consul, and seriously believed in his own divinity. Shortly after Caligula’s accession, he made an attempt to enforce the erection of his statue in synagogues and even the Temple. This caused serious concern in the Jewish world and resulted in a Jewish delegation headed by the Jewish philosopher Philo, being sent to Rome. Philo left a vivid account of his impressions of Caligula’s court.

At the beginning of the Christian era it has been estimated, based on a medieval report of a census conducted by Emperor Claudius in 48 CE, that seven million Jews lived in the Roman Empire, including 2.5 million in Judea and a million each in Asia Minor, Egypt and Syria.7 This represented 10% of the population of the Roman Empire.

The Jewish revolt against Rome represented a clash between Jewish and Greek culture and with the adoption of hero worship, relations between the Jews and the Romans deteriorated swiftly. The historian Paul Johnson thinks that the revolt may have come during the reign of Caligula (37 – 41 CE) who sought to impose full blooded hero worship, had it not been for his assassination.8

The revolt of 66 CE was one of the most significant and horrifying events in Jewish history and is unfortunately badly recorded. Tacitus left a long account but only fragments survive. Virtually the only authority for the war is Josephus, and he is, in the words of Paul Johnson “tendentious, contradictory and thoroughly unreliable”.9 The war in Judea was initially conducted by Vespasian, but in 69 CE he was made emperor and returned to Rome, leaving his son, Titus, in charge of the campaign for Jerusalem.

Alexander the Great had used 32 000 men to create his empire. Caesar had used fewer than 25 000 and Hannibal less than 50 000. Titus needed 80 000 soldiers and four years to subdue Jerusalem.10 At the war’s end, Vespasian and Titus were so proud of their achievement that they minted coins with the inscription “Judea Capta” – Judea is in captivity. Further contingents of Jewish slaves followed the Roman Jewish war of 66 – 70 CE, where it has been stated that 97 000 Jewish slaves were brought back to Rome alone.11

The Bar Kochba revolt of 132 – 135 CE had its seeds in the decision by Emperor Hadrian to build over the ruins of Jerusalem a Roman city called Aelia Capitolina.12 Its initial success was made possible by the fact that on this occasion the Jews, or at least their militant elements, were united under the leadership of a single strong personality, Shimon bar Kosiba (known as Bar Kochba). The Roman historian Dio says 580 000 Jews died in the fighting and nearly the entire land was laid waste.13 Of all the Roman conflicts against the Jews, the Bar Kochba revolt was the most costly to the Romans. Emperor Hadrian reporting to the Senate after the war omitted the customary ending “I and my army are well”.14 After the Bar Kochba revolt there were so many Jewish slaves for sale that the price dropped to less than that of a horse.15

The two catastrophes, of 70 CE and 135 CE, effectively ended Jewish state history in antiquity.

It is recorded that many of these Jewish slaves did not remain slaves for long16 and were redeemed by other Jews. Jews did not make good slaves and were disliked by their owners, inter alia, because of their independent temperament, and more importantly, the fact that they would not work on the Sabbath and insisted on special food.17 The origin of Jewish settlement in Europe was not due entirely to the slave element; commerce was also a potent factor, and

Jews were prominent in trade in the Mediterranean.18

The Romans conducted a liberal administration and it is to their credit that they did not permit the Judean war to involve a universal religious persecution even though the Jewish position must have been for some time highly uncomfortable.19 Even after the Jewish-Roman wars, Judaism continued to be tolerated20 and in 212 CE Emperor Caracalla conferred full citizenship on the Jews.

Judaism became popular, particularly amongst the upper classes, and numerous persons discarded idolatry and began to observe some of the ceremonies including the Sabbath. Nero’s empress, Poppaea, was one of them21 and Emperor Augustus, in a letter to Tiberius wrote, “Not even a Jew observes the Sabbath as faithfully as I do”.22 Apparently, circumcision was a deterrent to proper conversion for adult men but, as a humorist observed, their sons became Jews in the fullest physical sense.23

In 313 CE, Emperor Constantine adopted Christianity as the state religion and enacted legislation prohibiting conversion to Judaism, Jews marrying Christian women and Jews owning Christian slaves.24 The position of the Jews thus began changing for the worse25 and this marked the transition from an era of tolerance to one of subjection.26 Legend has it that on the eve of an important battle Emperor Constantine saw a cross of light in the heavens bearing the inscription “Conquer by this”.27 Contrary to popular belief, Constantine himself did not adopt Christianity.28 He was also responsible for relocating the capital to Constantinople, named after him.

The Roman Empire declined and finally succumbed to repeated Barbarian invasions. Rome was sacked by the Visigoths in 410, the Vandals in 455 and in 476 the last emperor in the west, whose name ironically was Romulus, was deposed and the Roman Empire came to an end. The Papacy was established in Rome in the 6th Century and treatment of the Jews varied from pope to pope. For the next 1400 years, Jewish history was in large measure determined by papal policy. Some popes safeguarded the Jews and even had Jewish financiers and physicians whereas others were bitterly antisemitic. Pope Gregory (590 – 604) set the example which was followed by many of his successors and remained the norm until the close of the Middle Ages. While it was not a completely favourable policy, there was a certain sufferance and Jews were protected with some minimal legal rights.29 Jews were entitled to freedom of worship and to maintain their own synagogues but were not allowed to build new ones. Conversion was encouraged but through peaceable means, persecution was discouraged and Jewish physicians were prohibited from having

Christian patients. But, as Cecil Roth writes, “Niceties of policy could hardly be appreciated by subordinate ecclesiastics”.30 The popes generally adhered to the principle of toleration and moderation and even the Crusades did not obtain a strong following in Italy (“Here religion was not taken quite so seriously”).31

An interesting story from the 11th Century relates to a wealthy Jew named Baruch, who converted to Christianity and adopted the name Benedict. He married the daughter of a Roman noble and they called their son Leo. Leo’s son entered the Church and became Pope Anacletus II in 1130 until his death in 1138.32

The period of the Renaissance marked a high point for Jews in Italy. In Rome, the popes were strong and were more influenced by political and cultural interests than by religious pressure. Furthermore every pope had a Jewish physician in his employ.33 Towards the end of the 13th and beginning of the 14th Century, Italian Jewry embarked on a new sphere of economic activity as small scale moneylenders. The 14th and 15th Centuries saw the expansion of these activities, which resulted less in large fortunes for a few than in modest fortunes for many.34 The Spanish expulsion of 1492 resulted in a large number of Jewish refugees arriving in Italy. The most important of these was Don Isaac Abravanel, who first settled in Naples before moving to Venice.

After Martin Luther nailed his famous Theses on the cathedral door at Wittenberg in 1517, the birth and dramatic growth of the Protestant movement resulted in Jewish life changing dramatically for the worse. The Catholic Church was threatened and began to put its house in order in a process known as the Counter–Reformation. No longer were enlightened popes elected; henceforth, popes were elected with the requirements of the church being paramount.35 Hitherto the Papacy had generally acted as a protector of Jews,36 but henceforth, though it never tolerated violence, it instigated the severest repression.

In 1555, Paul IV became pope, and issued the famous Bull starting with words “Cum nimis absurdum”. This addressed the ‘absurdity’ of allowing the then present state of affairs with regard to the Jews to continue and led to the confinement of Jews to the ghetto. Jews were allowed only one synagogue, ownership of real estate was outlawed, Jewish men were forced to wear a yellow hat and Jewish physicians were no longer permitted to treat Christian patients.37 The ghetto spread across Italy and ushered in a dark period for Italian Jews, lasting for around 300 years.

Paul IV had been an unpopular pope, and as he lay dying in 1559 the mob dislodged a statue of him on Capitoline Hill, crowned its head with one of the yellow hats he had forced the Jews to wear and used it as a football in the streets.

Each ghetto had its own character. Some were overcrowded and unhealthy, as was Rome’s. Others were more spacious and comfortable, as was Venice’s. Cecil Roth wrote about conditions in the Rome ghetto:

Nowhere in the entire country – nowhere perhaps in all Europe – did the Jews live under worse conditions. The Ghetto was situated in the fetid, low-lying quarter on the left bank of the Tiber, frequently inundated by the overflowing of the river and heavily visited at time of plague…38

It was necessary for the Jewish community to greet each new pope. This ceremony took place near the Arch of Titus. The Jewish community brought with them the Torah, which the pope returned to them. In the 17th Century, Pope Urban VIII added a new and hardly credible humiliation to the ceremony when he decreed that the Jews might no longer kiss the foot of the pope, but only the spot where it had stood.39

In 1796, Napoleon Bonaparte commenced his victorious Italian campaign and was hailed by the Jews as their saviour. After liberating the ghettos, Napoleon proclaimed equality for the Jews and Pope Pius left Rome as a captive never to return. Napoleon’s defeat at Waterloo in 1815 was a disaster for democratic Italians and Jews; the popes were restored and the Jews were driven back into the ghetto.40

The Risorgimento, or Reawakening, is the national liberation movement to which modern Italy owes its being. Under the political leadership of Mazzini and the military leadership of Garibaldi, its aim was to free Italy from papal and foreign domination. This process commenced in 1848 and was completed by 1870, with Rome becoming the capital of a united Italy. The rabbis supported the cause and preached recruitment sermons from the pulpit; Jews took part in this movement and paid a price out of all proportion to their numbers.41

Italian Jewry now became one of the best integrated Jewish communities in Europe. Roth wrote that twenty two years had sufficed to bring the emancipation of Jews in Italy to fruition. In 1848, there was no European country (except Spain, from where they were entirely excluded) where the restrictions placed upon them were more galling and more humiliating, whereas after 1870, there was no land where conditions were better.42

Benito Mussolini oscillated all his life between philo- and antisemitism.43 When the Fascist movement was formed in 1919 it initially showed no trace of antisemitism. Jews were in fact among the original founders and were active in every branch of it. Mussolini came to power in 1922 and in 1929 observed that “The Jewish problem does not exist in Italy”. In 1930, he publicly denounced antisemitism as “Unworthy of a European nation…stupid and barbarous”.44 In 1933, he called for the establishment of a Jewish State in Palestine and in 1934 described himself as a “Zionist” in a talk with Nahum Goldmann.45 It was only in 1938, with the formation of an alliance with Nazi Germany, that severe discriminatory laws modeled on the Nuremberg Laws were enacted in Italy. After the introduction of these laws, among those dismissed from their positions were no fewer than fifty high ranking naval officials; in the army, the process of elimination was no less drastic. Colonel Segre paraded his regiment and blew out his brains in their presence, while General Ascoli did the same, but in private.

On 25 July 1943, Mussolini was dismissed from office and on 8 September Italy surrendered to the Allies. However, the Germans reacted, and the greater part of the country, from Rome northwards fell under their control. Unfortunately for the Jews, over the past four and a half centuries Jewish life in Italy had shifted from the south to the north of the country; south of Rome, only a few hundred Jews lived.

Prior to this Mussolini, despite enormous pressure from Germany, refused to have anything to do with the Final Solution.46 It was only now that Himmler was able to draw Italy into it. On 24 September 1943, he sent instructions to his SS boss in Rome, Herbert Kappler, that all Jews were to be rounded up and sent to Germany. But the German ambassador in Rome, whose Italian mistress was hiding a family of Jews in her home with his approval, gave no help and the military commander said he needed the Jews to build fortifications. Kappler used his order to blackmail the Jewish community and demanded fifty kilograms of gold within 36 hours otherwise 200 Jews would die. When the two leaders of the Jewish community asked to be allowed to pay in Lira, Kappler sneered, “I can print as much of that as I want”. The gold was delivered within four days.47

Immediately prior to World War II 35 000 Jews were living in Italy and roughly 80% survived the war48 (which, in occupied Europe, is the highest percentage after Denmark).49 Nevertheless, Italian Jewry suffered a crushing blow. In the words of Cecil Roth, “…Not only had the habit of Jewish life been interrupted, but in many places its setting had disappeared – the lovely old synagogues ruined, the artistic and literary treasures despoiled, the historic archives dispersed. Such a blow could not fail to leave a lasting impression”.50

Roth further notes that many Jews owed their lives to Christian neighbors and the active support of the Christian Church. A great, or perhaps greater part, of the Italian people was unaffected by the unceasing torrent of propaganda.51

In recent times, considerable progress has been made in bettering Jewish-Catholic relations. In the declaration Nostra Aetate, at the 1965 Vatican Council II, Pope John XXIII officially condemned the accusation of deicide made against the Jewish people. In 1986, Pope John Paul II became the first pope to attend a synagogue service, taking turns with the chief rabbi to read psalms. Pope John Paul II told the congregation: “You are our dearly beloved brothers, and in a way you are our elder brothers”.52

Notable Italian Jews have included Luigi Luzzatti, who became Prime Minister in 1910, Camillo Olivetti, founder of Olivetti typewriters, the painter Amadeo Modigliani, and Primo Levi, whose account of the Holocaust has received international acclaim.

There are close to 70 synagogues in Italy dating from the Middle Ages to the 20th Century.53 It is estimated that 35000 Jews live in Italy at present, of which 15000 live in Rome and 10 000 in Milan.

Ancient Rome, the area around the Roman Forum and Coliseum contains many sites of Jewish interest. The Arch of Titus was erected in 81 CE to celebrate the victory of Titus (and Vespasian) in Judea. It recalls the destruction of the Temple and depicts Roman soldiers carrying the seven branched menorah. Apparently, the base of this menorah differs from the dimensions set out in the Torah and hence it is argued that it cannot be the original from Solomon’s Temple. Interestingly, Israel chose to use the same base for the menorah which is its national emblem. Jews refused to walk under the Arch of Titus until Israel was once again free, a condition which was fulfilled in 1948 with Israel’s independence.54 However, a barrier is present around the Arch of Titus, so while Jewish law now permits walking under the arch, Italian law prohibit it.

After Titus conquered Jerusalem, he went into the Holy of Holies, an act which so offended the Jews that Titus was placed forever in their gallery of most despised enemies.55 Jewish tradition has it that Titus was punished through a mosquito flying into his nose and entering his ear, causing a buzzing sound. To this day, a medical condition which causes a buzzing sound in one’s ear is named Tinnitus, after Titus. The famous Biblical commentator, Onkelos, was a nephew of Titus and it is recorded in the Talmud that when he was considering converting to Judaism he raised the spirit of Titus through necromancy.56

Vespasian is also mentioned in the Talmud, which narrates that as Vespasian’s advance on Jerusalem gained momentum, Rabbi Yochanan ben Zakkai decided to seek him out in order to try negotiate a settlement with him. He had himself smuggled out of the city by his students in a coffin and on meeting Vespasian advised him that he was destined to be king. When soon afterwards a messenger arrived from Rome to inform Vespasian that Nero had died and that Vespasian was the new Caesar, Vespasian inquired off Rabbi Yochanan ben Zakkai what he wanted. Rabbi Yochanan ben Zakkai answered “Give me the town of Yavneh and its Sages”.57 This action by Rabbi Yochanan ben Zakkai is viewed by many as being responsible for the survival of the Jewish people.

Rome

At the top of Capitoline Hill, one of Rome’s seven hills, stands a bronze equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius (161 – 180 CE). Marcus Aurelius is remembered as a philosopher who had a low opinion of the Jews but a high opinion of their patriarch Judah haNasi, and as having been a particularly ruthless persecutor of Christians.

The Forum of Peace housed the Tzitz, the golden plaque which adorned the head of the Kohen Gadol, after it was brought from the Temple. The Tzitz is referred to in the Talmud Yerushalmi, where the question is asked whether the words “kadosh l’Hashem” written on the Tzitz were written on one or two lines. Rabbi Eliezer ben Yose answered that he had seen the Tzitz while in Rome and could confirm that it was written on one line.58

The Coliseum was built by Vespasian and completed in 80 CE. It is recorded that many Jewish slaves worked on its construction.59

For the second half of the First Century CE, evidence exists that there were twelve different synagogues in Rome60 although not contemporaneously. The ruins of one of these synagogues have been found at Ostia Antica, which is about 30 kilometres south-east of Rome. In ancient times, it served as Rome’s port city for many centuries until the course of the Tiber River changed, leaving Ostia Antica “high and dry”.61 Ostia Antica was home to a sizeable and wealthy Jewish community who built a synagogue in the middle of the First Century. The ruins of this synagogue, which was restored in the Fourth Century, were discovered in 1961.62 The Aron Kodesh, which faces Jerusalem, and a seven armed menorah chiselled in the stone, can be seen. Also visible are a prayer room, a women’s section, a mikveh and a kitchen. The kitchen contains an oven and a marble counter.

The area where the Jewish Ghetto in Rome once was today contains the Great Synagogue, the Jewish Museum, Jewish schools and a number of kosher restaurants. The ghetto period in Rome lasted from 1555 until Passover night in 1846, when the ghetto was razed to the ground, never to be restored.63 Sweeping changes have occurred in the ghetto. Today, only as few streets give an idea of its original appearance and only a few corners recall the old unsanitary conditions.64 The building containing five synagogues at No 37 Piazza delle Cinque Scole was demolished in order to build the Great Synagogue.65 The civic rules which prescribed that Jews could only have one synagogue had been circumvented by maintaining the five synagogues under one roof.66

There are currently 13 synagogues in Rome most of which are Sephardi.67 The Great Synagogue, a magnificent edifice, was officially opened in 1904. Legend has it that King Emmanuele had been reluctant to attend the opening and only agreed after being assured that it was a Jewish church and there was no Jesus in this church. Apparently, after the unification of Italy in 1870 very little tolerance existed amongst its leadership for the popes and the church. The synagogue has an oriental style and its impressive dome stands out as a landmark on the skyline of Rome. The origins of Rome’s Jewish community predates Ashkenazi and Sephardi communities and this section of the community sees itself as neither Ashkenazi or Sephardi and has developed its own customs and rituals.68 The service in the synagogue follows Nusach Italki (Italian rite) and is difficult to follow. The building can accommodate 700 men and 500 women. After World War II the thirty chief families, the Scuola Tempio, could trace their ancestry back to the time of the Emperor Titus, 1900 years ago, when they were brought in chains after the destruction of the Temple.69

After World War II, Israel Anton Zolli was reinstated as the chief rabbi of Rome, but this appointment sparked acrimonious controversy and opposition. Many accused him of collaboration and complicity with the Germans. In February 1945, he converted to Catholicism. Today, almost all synagogues in Italy are Orthodox; the Reform movement has had little impact, perhaps because Italian Orthodoxy was at no time as rigid as it was north of the Alps.

The Jewish Museum is located on the premises of the Great Synagogue. It houses a number of interesting exhibits, including a parochet which is supposedly worth Euro 2.5 million and Torah covers which are still used. One Torah cover was made from a dress of a Swedish princess who converted to Catholicism and was disowned by her family.

Authentic cucina romana also has its roots in Jewish cuisine, whose origins date back 400 years. These kosher restaurants are well known for Jewish and Roman artichokes. Jewish artichokes are open and deep fried until crisp – the petals are plucked off and eaten whereas Roman artichokes are boiled in vinegar and olive oil and are soft.

Campo de Fiori is one of Rome’s prominent squares. It is recorded that on the Jewish New Year 1553 an auto de fe was held there during which an enormous number of Hebrew books were burnt.

Piazza Navona is perhaps Rome’s most prominent square. From the 15th to 17th Centuries, it was a carnival sport and comic spectacle to force old Jewish men to eat a heavy meal and then, clothed only in a loin cloth, run in a carnival race around this square. This practice continued until 1668.70

Michelangelo’s Moses is housed in a church called San Pietro in Vincoli. This Moses has horns – apparently because of an error in translation from the Book of Exodus where the Hebrew word keren had been translated as horn instead of ray of light.

The Vatican museums contain items of Jewish interest. One exhibit comprises Jewish gravestones from the 1st to the 3rd Centuries CE. Many are engraved with menorahs and some have Hebrew writing, although most are in Greek. These gravestones were found in the catacombs, deep subterranean tunnels which were the earliest burial places used by Roman Jews. Six Jewish catacombs have been found in Rome, mainly along the Appian Way, but it is difficult for the public to gain access to them.

The Sistine Chapel was commissioned by Pope Sixtus IV, after whom it is also named, and was built according to the exact dimensions of Solomon’s Temple in Jerusalem.71 It was Pope Julius II who forced a reluctant Michelangelo to paint the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, a task which took Michelangelo four and a half years to complete and which he finished in 1508. The panel depicting the “Creation of Adam” is the most famous part of the ceiling and one of the best known images in the world. The philosopher Goethe wrote about Michelangelo’s effort, “Without having seen the Sistine Chapel one can form no appreciable idea of what one man is capable of achieving”. Twenty-three years later, Michelangelo was back to paint the “Last Judgement” on the Sistine Chapel wall, a task which took him seven years to complete.

Rabbi Benjamin Blech and Roy Doliner recently published a controversial book called The Sistine Secrets in which they claim that Michelangelo embedded secret messages into his frescos. They refer to the fact that the ceiling does not contain even one figure from the New Testament and that all the images are from the Old Testament. Michelangelo, they say, was asking the church why Christianity had ignored its true roots and claim that he was preaching reconciliation between Christians and Jews. They also assert that Michelangelo had a deep understanding of Torah, Kabbalah, Talmud and Midrash and that many of his images were influenced by this knowledge.

There are a number of theories as to what happened to the Menorah taken from the Temple, including that it was thrown into the Tiber, was taken by the Barbarians to North Africa or is hidden somewhere in the Vatican.

Florence

Up until the reign of Cosimo de Medici, the Republic of Florence had barred Jews. Since the Church frowned upon usury, the Tuscan Christian banking families specialized in lending only to foreign royalty and international business concerns. This left the field wide open for Jews to lend to the common people. When Cosimo came to power he invited the Jews to Florence. It seems that the Jewish community of Florence originated in 1437, when some Jewish bankers began lending money there.72

Jewish life in Florence was tied to the Medicis. When the latter were driven out of town, the Jews left as well. When they returned, the Jews returned with them.

The ghetto was established in 1570 by Cosimo I, who was anxious to obtain the title of Grand Duke of Tuscany from Pope Pius V.73 It existed until 1848, a period of 278 years, when it was erased completely. In the view of Cecil Rot, this was an “irreparable loss of the city”.74 The ghetto was situated in the area around what is today Piazza della Repubblica and a plaque in this piazza reads “The old centre of the city was restored to new life after centuries of squalor”.

The Florence Synagogue (which is Sephardi) is one of the most beautiful in Europe. Money was donated by David Levi to build a synagogue “worthy of Florence”. It was completed in 1882, and is of Moorish design. Its central dome is sheathed in copper, which has since turned green. The doors of the ark still bear the scars inflicted by Fascist bayonets. Unlike in Rome, the Jewish community in Florence decided to locate the synagogue away from the area where the ghetto existed. The synagogue has an interesting South African connection. In 1944, servicemen Leon Dison and Hymie Bloch were instructed to check the building as it was feared that it had been booby trapped by the Nazis. Bloch lived in Durban and passed away in 2004. As of last year

Leon Dison, aged 87, was living in Johannesburg.75

Michelangelo’s David is housed in the Accademia Gallery. Given that Michelangelo was supposedly so well versed in Judaism, it is an interesting question as to why David is uncircumcised. The Sistene Secrets claims that the simplest reason is that Michelangelo had never seen a circumcised organ. The other reason it puts forward is that the Inquisition was still strong and Michelangelo did not want to be accused of Judaizing.76

The Church of Santa Croce displays a prominent Magen David on its exterior. The façade was designed by a Jewish architect who, according to the The Sistine Secrets, was told that his name would not appear on the church, so insisted that a large Magen David be placed prominently on its front.77 Jews were forced to fulfill quotas to listen to sermons in this church, with the preacher’s fee having to be paid by the Jewish community.78

The Jewish community of Florence today numbers around 900.

Venice

Venice was for a long time intolerant of Jews, who were considered dangerous rivals in trade, but this was more from commercial jealousy than religious zeal. No concrete proof of a Jewish presence in Venice can be traced prior to the 14th Century, although many Jewish merchants and moneylenders visited and worked in the city from the 10th Century onwards. In 1298, the rate of interest charged by the local Christian usurers had become so severe that Jewish moneylenders were permitted. The prejudice was so strong, however, that initially Jews had to conduct business from Mestre, the nearest point on the mainland. In the end, three loan banks were permitted to open in the city.79 A condotta, which regulated this arrangement, was periodically renewed and at times cancelled.

Over time, the number and importance of the Jews increased. In 1516, agitation for the expulsion of the Jews ultimately led to a decision to segregate the entire community. The place which was chosen was where a cannon foundry had been present.

Venice was the first city in the world to force Jews to live in a ghetto and indeed is the city that gave the world that word. The word ghetto most probably derives from the Italian word geto, which means foundry.80 The ghetto had high walls and two gates manned by four Christian guards, six other guards manned two patrol boats to prevent nocturnal violations, and all ten had to be paid by the Jewish community. Although ostracized, Jews were safe in Venice. In the 17th Century, its golden age, 5000 Jews lived in the ghetto. Jewish scholarship and commerce flourished, with Jews controlling most of Venice’s foreign trade. According to a Jewish writer in the 17th century, the Venetians were “more pleasing and kindly with the Jews than any other in the world”.81 Rabbis frequently complained about the luxury and worldliness of ghetto life, and the preference for Italian over Hebrew. Many of them would have liked the ghetto walls to be higher.82 The Venice ghetto was a relatively large quarter, and is one of the few that have survived in their original form.

The birth of Hebrew publishing in Venice took place contemporaneously with the birth of the ghetto. Hebrew publishing was important for its quantity and especially the quality of its output.83 The gates of the ghetto were pulled down after the Napoleonic invasion in 1797.

There are five synagogues in the ghetto, two Ashkenazi (for German, and French Jews), one for Italian rites and two Sephardi (for Spanish and Turkish Jews). These all date back to the 16th Century. Only two are still actively used, the Spanish synagogue between Pesach and Rosh Hashanah, as it is cool, and the Turkish synagogue between Rosh Hashanah and Pesach, as it has heating. The Spanish synagogue has been described as the most immense and imposing of the Venetian synagogues84 and may be the only synagogue in the world that has held services continuously from 1550 to the present day.85

Shabbat meals are available at the Gam Gam restaurant, which is hosted by Chabad Rabbi Schachar Banin and his wife Ramy. Rabbi Banin was born in Italy of Yemenite extraction and has been living in Venice for seventeen years.

The Rialto commercial district was the setting for Shakespeare’s The Merchant of Venice, and it depended on Jewish merchants and moneylenders. Paul Johnson, in his History of the Jews, writes that it was plausible in having Jessica say that her father Shylock’s house was full of treasures. Successful Jewish moneylenders often accumulated quantities of unredeemed pledges, especially jewels.86

The Jewish population of Venice is less than 500, and of these, very few live in the ghetto.

 

Bernard Katz, a frequent contributor to Jewish Affairs, is a Chartered Accountant who works for an investment bank in Johannesburg.

 

NOTES

  1. Roth, Cecil, The History of the Jews of Italy, The Jewish Publication Society of America, 1946, p156
  2. Encyclopaedia Judaica, 1972, 14:240,  hereafter cited as “EJ”
  3. Roth, op cit, pp42, 2
  4. Roth, Cecil, History of the Jewish People, East and West Library, Revised and Enlarged Illustrated Edition, 1959, p84 hereafter cited as “Cecil Roth”
  5. Eban, Abba, Heritage, Civilization and the Jews, Steinmatzky, 1984, p79
  6. Roth, op cit, p6
  7. Eban, op cit, 98
  8. Johnson, Paul, A History of the Jews, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1987, pp120, 136
  9. Ibid, p137
  10. Dimont, Max, Jews, God and History, Mentor, (division of Penguin Books USA, Revised, Updated Edition, 1994, p109
  11. Roth, op cit, p13
  12. Eban, op cit, p99
  13. Johnson, op cit, p142
  14. Dimont, op cit, p114
  15. Johnson, op cit, p142
  16. EJ, 9:1116
  17. Cecil Roth, op cit, p138
  18. Ibid
  19. Roth, op cit, p13
  20. Cecil Roth, op cit, p140
  21. Roth, op cit, p17
  22. Leon, Harry, The Jews of Ancient Rome, Jewish Publication Society of America, 1960, p13
  23. Kriwaczek, Paul, Yiddish Civilization, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2005, p30
  24. EJ, 9:1119
  25. EJ, 14::244
  26. EJ, 9:1119
  27. Carrol, James, Constantine’s Sword, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2001, p175
  28. Roth, op cit, p30
  29. Eban, op cit, p115
  30. Cecil Roth, op cit, pp146-147
  31. Ibid, p192
  32. Roth, op cit, pp73-74
  33. EJ, 14:248
  34. Ibid, 9:1121-2
  35. Roth, op cit, p289
  36. Johnson, op cit, p243
  37. Roth, op cit, p295
  38. Ibid, p329
  39. Ibid, pp387- 388
  40. Dimont, op cit, p312
  41. Roth, op cit, p454
  42. Ibid, p474
  43. Johnson, op cit, p501
  44. Sachar, Howard, The Course of Modern Jewish History, Vintage Books, Revised and Updated, 1990, p637
  45. Michaelis, Meir, The World reacts to the Holocaust, Italy, Ed. D. S. Wyman, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, p519
  46. Sachar, op cit, p545
  47. Johnson, op cit, p501 48 EJ, 9:1137
  48. Michaelis, op cit, p524
  49. Ibid, pp524-525
  50. Roth, op cit, p546
  51. Johnson, op cit, p563
  52. Sacerdoti, Annie, The Guide to Jewish Italy, Rizzoli International Publications Inc, 2004, p8
  53. Ibid, p172
  54. Grayzel, Solomon, A History of the Jews, Jewish Publication Society of America, New Revised Edition,1968, pp167-8
  55. Talmud Bavli, The Artscroll Series, The Schottenstein Edition, Mesorah Publications Ltd, 1993, Tractate Gittin, 56b
  56. Ibid, 56a – 56b
  57. Talmud Yerushalmi, Yoma, perekh 4
  58. Roth, op cit, p13
  59. EJ, 14:241
  60. Fodor’s, Italy 2009, Fodor’s Travel, a division of Random House, 2009, p141
  61. Gallico, Sonia, Guide to the Excavations of Ostia Antica, Ats Italia Editrice, 2000, p52
  62. Roth, op cit, p459
  63. Sacerdoti, op cit, p174
  64. Fiorentino, Luca, The Ghetto Reveals Rome, GangemiEditore, 2005, p23 66 Ibid, p74
  65. Weiner, Rome, p5
  66. Wein, Berel, Herald of Destiny, Shaar Press, 1993, p58
  67. Johnson, op cit, p563
  68. Roth, p387
  69. Blech, Benjamin, Doliner, Roy, The Sistine Secrets, JR Books, 2008, p6.
  70. Salvadori, Roberto, The Jews of Florence, La Giuntina, 2008, p9
  71. Sacerdoti, op cit, p136
  72. Roth, op cit, p490
  73. Great Synagogue, Florence, jewishitaly.org
  74. Blech, op cit, p98-99
  75. Ibid, p288
  76. Roth, op cit, p316
  77. Ibid, p123
  78. Abrahams, Israel, Jewish Life in the Middle Ages, Dover Publications Inc, 2004, p62 (Unabridged republication, Originally published, Macmillan & Co, 1896)
  79. Roth, op cit, p393
  80. Johnson, op cit, p238
  81. Calimani, Riccardo, The Ghetto of Venice, Arnoldo Mondadori Editore, 2005, pp80-81
  82. Calimani, Riccardo, Sullam, Anna-Vera, Calimani, Davide, The Venetian Ghetto, Modadori Electra, 2005, p76
  83. Weiner, Venice, op cit, p6 Johnson, op cit, p237

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