(Author: Bernard Katz, Vol. 78, #2, Winter 2023)
The Jewish presence in what is today known as the Kingdom of the Netherlands probably dates to Roman times, when Jews accompanied the Roman armies into the southern part of the area. Documentary evidence of Jewish settlement only dates from the 12th Century, however. More evidence is available from the 13th Century and in the 14th, when most Jews suffered from Black Death persecutions. From the 15th and 16th centuries, there is a great scarcity of information.[1]
Jewish Presence in Modern Times – the Golden Age of the 17th Century
The 17th Century has been described as the Golden Age of the Netherlands. That description can also be aptly applied to the Sephardi Jews who made the Netherlands their home during that period, especially during the second half of the century.
The Netherlands became a Spanish possession as part of a royal inheritance in 1556. Protestant Netherlands did not take kindly to being governed by Catholic Spain and rebelled. The Netherlands was backed by England, who supported the Dutch by sending troops in 1585. Spanish plundering of English ships and English plundering of Spanish ships, led by Francis Drake in the West Indies and South America, culminated in the mighty sea battle between England and Spain in 1588 where the lighter and swifter English vessels famously defeated the Spanish Armada. This battle represented a major turning point in history for the Atlantic, for henceforth it was no longer the sole domain of Spain and Portugal. The Dutch revolt against Spain is also known as the Eighty Year War (1568-1648). Dutch independence was only formally recognised by Spain in 1648, although the Netherlands achieved de facto independence in 1581.
The first indications of a Jewish community living in Amsterdam in the modern era are to be found around 1590.[2] The early Jewish immigrants were families of elite merchants and comprised Sephardi Conversos whose ancestry was Spanish and Portuguese. They settled in the Vlooienberg suburb of Amsterdam, which became the Jewish Quarter, and referred to themselves as Portuguese to disguise their Jewish identity.
The first community, Beth Jacob, was founded in secret probably around 1603 with services initially being held in the house of its founder. Neve Shalom was founded in 1608 and its first services were held in the house of Simon Palache, a Sephardi from Morocco who also acted as the representative to the Netherlands of the Moroccan sultan. Neve Shalom built the first synagogue in 1612, but the City Council forbade the community to use it. To circumvent the prohibition the synagogue was sold to a prominent burgher, a member of the City Council, and he leased it back to the community. When the burgher died in 1638 his widow sold the synagogue to the community. By then public Jewish worship was a fact of life.[3] A dispute within the Beth Jacob community gave rise to the establishment of a third Portuguese Jewish community in Amsterdam, in 1618, called Ets Chaim. The three communities later combined, in 1639, as the Talmud Torah.[4] When its synagogue, a converted warehouse, became too small it was decided to build a new synagogue, and in 1674 a magnificent Esnoga (synagogue) was inaugurated. This still exists today and is known as the Portuguese Synagogue.
Jewish settlement in the Netherlands was propitiously timed for by 1610 Amsterdam had become an important center of world trade. By then about 200 Portuguese Sephardi Jews lived in Amsterdam and in 1639 they numbered over a 1000.[5]
Hugo Grotius, the Dutch legal scholar, was appointed in 1615 to consider the legal status and rights of the Jews. While he did have some misgivings, he was a principled and compassionate man and recommended that Jewish settlement in Holland be permitted. At the time public Jewish worship became permissible and much of the degrading restrictions against Jews were removed.
In the 1620s and 1630s, and particularly the 1640s Ashkenazi Jews began arriving in Amsterdam. These were initially from Germany, primarily as a result of the devastation caused by the Thirty Year’s War, and were followed by Polish and Lithuanian Jews who fled Eastern Europe in the wake of the Chmielnicki massacres of 1648. The first Ashkenazi synagogue was built in 1671, by which time the Jewish population of Amsterdam numbered 7400 and the Ashkenazim outnumbered the Sephardim by 2:1.[6]
During the second half of the 17th Century, Sephardi Jews occupied an important place in commerce and industry. They owned about a quarter of the shares in the Dutch East India Company and about the same quantum of shares in the Dutch West India Company. The committee set up to establish new rules for trading on the Amsterdam Stock Exchange comprised 37 Jews among its 41 members.[7] Jews were also prominent in industry, especially sugar refineries, silk, tobacco and diamonds and book publishing. They supplied the military and made loans to the state.[8] According to Encyclopaedia Judaica the role of the Portuguese Jews in the Dutch economy before its official independence from Spain in 1648 was modest and furthermore the claim by some writers that the wealth of Amsterdam was as a result of Jewish economic activity is an exaggeration.[9]
Steven Nadler is of the view that the special, close and harmonious relationship that the Jews enjoyed in the Netherlands may in part be due to the Dutch identifying their struggle for independence with the struggle of ancient Israel for nationhood. Furthermore, it may also explain the large quantity of biblical paintings in the Dutch oeuvre.[10]
The Sephardi Jews’ arrival into the tolerant environment of the Netherlands coincided with the Dutch fight for independence and their becoming a major trading nation in the East Indies and West Indies.
Jews in the Dutch New World
After the expulsions of Jews from Spain and Portugal the main Sephardi centers in the world were to be found in the Ottoman Empire (Constantinople and Salonika), Italy and Amsterdam.
The Sephardim were the first Jews to arrive in the New World and they settled in Central and South America. These were initially Spanish and Portuguese Conversos who were pursued by the Inquisition. Max Dimont speculates that, but for the Inquisition expanding its reach into South America, the dominant civilization might well have been in South America instead of North America.[11] From Amsterdam, Portuguese Jews took part in the economic exploration and development of the Dutch possessions in the Americas namely Brazil, Surinam, Curacao and ultimately New Amsterdam (New York).
Several thousands of Spanish and Portuguese Conversos played a decisive role in fostering growth of early 16th century Brazil. They were the first to cultivate sugar plantations along Brazil’s north-eastern coast and owned as many as half of the 120 sugar mills operating there by the early 17th Century. The Dutch West Indies Company finally gained control of Brazil in 1630 and were aided by Jewish soldiers, traders, and adventurers. Once the conquest of Brazil had been secured the Marranos who inhabited the north-eastern part of Brazil were able to return to Judaism.[12] For as long as the Dutch controlled Brazil, religious freedoms prevailed. Dutch control encouraged not only Jewish traders and settlers from Amsterdam, but also Portuguese Conversos who were now able to practice Judaism under benevolent Dutch rule.
The Jewish population of Brazil numbered some 3000 and comprised nearly half of the county’s European population.[13] Jews were involved in import-export trading, slave trading and slave owning, and in the sugar industry. The first synagogue was built in Recife and opened in 1636. Rabbi Aboab da Fonseca from Amsterdam became its rabbi in 1642.
This golden interlude in Brazil unfortunately ended in 1654 when the Portuguese recaptured it from the Dutch resulting in the expulsion of the Jews, and as a result, the New World became substantially off limits to Jews. Many returned to Amsterdam including Rabbi Aboab but others sought refuge in the Netherlands’ other colonies in the Americas, including a contingent of 24 who found refuge in New Amsterdam (now New York) which would only remain Dutch for a further 10 years before the British takeover in 1664.
Pirates and other personalities
Described by Edward Kritzler as a “warrior rabbi”, Samuel Palache (1550-1616) was born and grew up in Morocco to a family who had previously fled the Spanish Inquisition. He was, Kritzler writes, a “Barbary pirate who was still capturing Spanish ships in his late sixties” and whose “ultimate goal was… to bring down the Spanish Empire.” [14]
Although Morocco was officially at peace with Spain, the sultan apparently turned a blind eye to the pirating activities.[15] Palache later moved to Amsterdam, where he conducted trading activities between Morocco and Amsterdam, acted as the representative of the sultan, was involved in establishing a treaty between Morocco and Holland, and continued with his pirating pursuits.[16] In 1611 he led a Dutch flotilla (ships and arms provided by Holland for a cut of the booty) under a Moroccan flag to capture Spanish ships.[17] Palache was one of the founders of the Amsterdam Jewish community and services were initially held in his home until the building of the first synagogue, Neve Shalom, in 1612, where he was referred to as the rabbi and elected its first president. In 1613, in his seventh decade, he took leave from his community to lead a pirate crew to seize Spanish ships.[18]
Moses Cohen Henriques
Another famous Jewish buccaneer-pirate of the age was Moses Cohen Henriques. He was born in Portugal circa. 1600, but soon afterwards the family fled to Amsterdam. Inspired by Samuel Palache, he went on to make his name as a pirate in the Caribbean. Henriques is especially well known for assisting the Dutch West India Company in 1628 to pull off a major gold and silver heist from the Spanish. Dutch privateers during the period, especially during 1623-1636 (when Henriques was active), were extremely successful in capturing Spanish ships. Henriques assisted the Dutch in capturing Brazil and was responsible for establishing a Jewish colony in Brazil. After Brazil was captured by Portugal in 1654 he became an advisor to Henry Morgan, perhaps the most famous pirate of all time. He was unsuccessfully pursued by the Inquisition and saw it as his mission to inflict as much damage as possible on Spain and Portugal. Jamaica had been captured by England in 1655 and it was here that Henriques ultimately relocated, his citizenship papers being signed by his old friend Henry Morgan, who in 1674 had been appointed as its Lieutenant Governor.[19]
For almost 25 years, the legendary artist Rembrandt van Rijn (1606-1669) lived in Jodenbreestraat in the Jewish Quarter of Amsterdam. Why he chose to live in a Jewish area is a matter of conjecture.
No other non-Jewish painter in history included as much Hebrew in his art as Rembrandt.[20] One-fifth of the men he painted, moreover, were Jews.[21] Among the many Jewish themes and people he painted were: The Triumph of Mordecai (Louvre), Jews in a Synagogue (The Pierpont Morgan Library), Belshazzar’s Feast (National Gallery, London) and Menashe ben Israel (possibly) (The Pierpont Morgan Library).
In his book Rembrandt’s Jews, Steven Nadler comments that it would be easy to construct a legend of Rembrandt as a philo-Semite, but warns against the temptation to romanticise things.[22] At the one extreme he quotes Dutch-Jewish historian Moses Gans, who describes Rembrandt as a friend of the Jews and that the latter owe him “an enormous debt of gratitude” since there had “never been another non-Jewish artist -sculptor, painter, or writer – to depict this rejected group of people who, in his own eyes, despite everything, remained God’s people in exile, as truthfully as did Rembrandt.”[23] At the other extreme Nadler quotes Gary Schwartz, a prominent Rembrandt scholar who maintains, that with reference to his personal relationships and his art, “Rembrandt did not penetrate deeply into the Jewish community” and that to claim that Rembrandt had a “deeply philo-Semitic mindset requires a leap of biographical imagination.”[24] Nadler is of the view that the truth lies somewhere in between.[25]
Rembrandt wasn’t the only Dutch artist who painted Jewish themes in the 17th Century. The list of others who did so is long and includes: Romeyn de Hooghe (‘Circumcision Ceremony in an Amsterdam Sephardi Family’, Rijksmuseum, and ‘The Inauguration of the Esnoga’, Library of the Jewish Theological Seminary), Emmanuel de Witte (‘Interior of the Portuguese Synagogue in Amsterdam’, Jewish Historical Museum) and Jacob van Ruisdael (‘The Jewish Cemetery’, Detroit Institute of Art).
That 17th Century Dutch artists portrayed Jews favourably was a break from historical precedent in Europe, where they were generally vilified. There are possibly many reasons why the Dutch artists chose Jewish themes. Among them certainly is the fact that Jews were paying for these portraits.[26]
By one estimate, close to five million paintings were produced by thousands of artists in 17th Century Holland. This abundance is particularly extraordinary since the Dutch population at the time was only around 80 000.[27]
Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677)
Baruch (Benedict) Spinoza was a member of Sephardi community of Amsterdam. An outstanding biblical student, he probably studied under the eminent rabbis Morteira and Manasseh ben Israel. [28] His father, a successful merchant, had fled Portugal and settled in Amsterdam.
In 1656, Spinoza was excommunicated for views at odds with Orthodox Judaism. The writ of excommunication was harsh and savage:
“Cursed be he by day, and cursed be he by night; cursed be he when he lies down, and cursed be he when he rises up; cursed be he when he goes out, and cursed be he when he comes in. The Lord will not pardon him…and the Lord will destroy his name from under the Heavens….
We order that nobody shall communicate with him orally or in writing or show him any favour…or read anything composed or written by him.” [29]
Spinoza identified God with nature and the natural laws of the universe. A God represented as such therefore can be worshipped but cannot hear or respond to prayer. Furthermore, God has no plan or purpose, and acts only based on the laws of His nature.
Abba Eban writes that Spinoza has been referred to as a “God-intoxicated man” and that for Spinoza, God is everything: “Whatever is, is in God, and nothing can either be or be conceived without God.” According to Eban, Spinoza was not a nonreligious Jew, still less an antireligious Jew…. He thought that the real essence and real value of religion lay in its ethical and human content, in the pursuit of justice and truth and compassion.” [30]
Spinoza led an austere, frugal, and lonely life of contemplation, making a living from grinding lenses.
A generation before Spinoza, Uriel da Costa had twice been expelled from the community for denying the immortality of the soul and for contending that all religions were man-made. Da Costa was an unstable man who twice repented in order to have his excommunication rescinded. In 1640, repenting for the second and final time he was required to strip to the waist, was publicly whipped and told to lie in the synagogue’s doorway while the entire congregation walked over his body. This was too much for da Costa who went home and shot himself.
The Jewish community of Amsterdam may have found a tolerant environment for religious beliefs in the Netherlands. None of this tolerance was exhibited in their treatment of Spinoza or da Costa.
Manasseh ben Israel (1604-1657)
Manasseh ben Israel was born a Converso in Madeira to where his father had escaped from Lisbon after being a penitent in an auto-da-fe. Thereafter the family moved to Amsterdam, where Manasseh became a prodigious biblical student. Manasseh served the Amsterdam Jewish community in various capacities but was never its official rabbi, and probably felt that he didn’t get the respect that he deserved. He founded the first Hebrew printing press in Amsterdam in 1626.
Manasseh was a scholar who published a number of books, the best known of which The Hope of Israel made the case that the messianic era would only arise once the Jews were scattered to all places around the globe. It was instrumental in presenting the argument to Oliver Cromwell for the readmission of Jews into England. Another of his books Piedra Gloriosa is well known today for it was illustrated with etchings by Manasseh’s friend Rembrandt.
Manasseh is best known for his trip to England in 1655 where he submitted a petition to Cromwell requesting that Jews be readmitted to England. Although Cromwell was in favour, this request was not formally granted. Manasseh returned to Netherlands a broken man believing (incorrectly) that his mission had been a failure. A subsequent petition to establish a synagogue and acquire a cemetery was accepted. Readmission, providentially, became fait-accompli in 1658 as no conditions were required. [31]
18th Century until World War II
By 1700 there were still only about 10 000 Jews in Amsterdam but it was nevertheless the largest Jewish community in Western Europe. During the 18th Century trade declined with a concomitant increase in financial hardship. By 1799, 87% of Ashkenazi and 54% of Sephardi were in need of support by richer members of their respective communities.[32]
The Netherlands was one of the countries conquered by Napoleon. It was renamed the Batavian Republic and known as such during its period of occupation (1795-1815). Despite Napoleon offering the Jews full emancipation, the Jews remained overwhelmingly supportive of the House of Orange and were further opposed to the granting of full emancipation as this would lead to loss of communal autonomy.[33] While subject to some civil disabilities – they couldn’t hold public office, were barred from certain trade guilds and were obliged to pay taxes for the church – Jews nevertheless enjoyed substantial freedoms in the Netherlands; the changes introduced by the French were more a regularisation of their status than a dramatic change.[34]
In the 19th Century the economic situation worsened so that by 1849, 55% of Ashkenazim and 63% of Sephardim in Amsterdam were considered to be destitute.[35] The more favorable economic situation after 1870 led to doubling of the Jewish population of Amsterdam from 30 000 in 1870 to 60 000 in 1900. During the first half of 20th Century the Jewish population declined as a result of low birth rates and assimilation. [36]
Holocaust
The Dutch borders were effectively closed to Jewish refugees in 1938, except for a brief period after Kristallnacht, when seven thousand refugees were permitted entry. Arrivals were sent back to Germany. This policy was excused by the local Jewish community and the Jewish press. Nevertheless, by the time World War II began there were 30 000 Jewish refugees in the Netherlands.[37]
The Jewish population of the Netherlands numbered about 140 000 at beginning of war (of these 120 000 identified as Ashkenazi and a little over 4300 as Sephardi). Between July 1942 and July 1943, about 110,000 were deported to Auschwitz and Sobibor via Westerbork.
Some 25 000 Jews went into hiding in Amsterdam, with around 18000 surviving. [38] A further 10 000 or so survived by being married to gentiles and some 5000 returned from the camps.[39] In all, about 30 000 Jews survived the war.
All in all, the murder rate of Dutch Jews amounted to 75%, higher than the neighbouring countries of Belgium and France. A number of reasons have been provided for this difference, which include that the SS had a free hand in the Netherlands whereas in Belgium and France tensions existed between the SS and the Wehrmacht. Another important reason was that Jews had never suffered at the behest of the authorities in the Netherlands and hence the community expected to be protected and were not suspicious of authority. This trusting attitude blinded them from realizing that the system could result in their destruction. [40]
Rijksinstituut voor Oorlogsdocumentatie, courtesy of USHMM Photo Archives
Post World War II
The once favourable impression about the Netherlands and the Jews during the Holocaust has been majorly reappraised. Deborah Dwork and Robert-Jan van Pelt are harshly condemnatory of the part played by the Jewish Councils and the Dutch nation. They assert that the “Jewish Council concerned itself very little with the fate of those who had left, a bit more with the future of whose who, for the moment remained, and primarily with their own fate” and that these actions “translated into a policy of cooperation.” [41]
Dwork and van Pelt refer extensively to the work of Dutch historian Professor Jacob Presser, who was commissioned in 1950 to write a history of the Jews under the occupation, a task which took him 10 years. This book, titled Ondergang (Destruction), “questioned the paradigm of suppression versus resistance, shaped the problem of responsibility, and …precipitated the recognition of the dull grey of everyday collusion.” [42] According to Dwork and van Pelt the great value of the book was in the reaction to it by ordinary Dutch citizens, who began to question their own role and perhaps their own culpability. By the mid-1970s the Dutch had come to an understanding of their individual and national (often silent) collusion and therefore (tacit) collaboration.[43] A reviewer of Presser’s book had this to say: “The fairy tale is finished, the fable of a small Holland that acted so well towards its Jews….To preserve the myth that Holland ‘did so well’ is in fact to aid the falsification of history.”[44]
Presser was also damning in his judgement of the Jewish Council, which he considered to be controlled by the intellectuals and the rich and who he claimed had sacrificed the “little people” in order “to prevent worse.” [45]
During the 1967 Six Day War the Dutch government and people strongly supported Israel. A scheme was even organised inviting civil servants to donate 0,5% of their salary to Israel for three months. [46]
Nowhere else in Europe were representatives of the government, often of the royal family, as likely to attend Jewish communal affairs and memorial commemorations. In the 1970s and 1980s Amsterdam had three Jewish mayors. [47]
Today some 43 000 Jews live in the Netherlands, almost half of them in and around Amsterdam. More than half do not practice the Jewish religion in any way. [48]
The Portuguese Synagogue (or Esnoga) is one of the iconic Jewish sites in Amsterdam. It was inaugurated in 1675 around the time that the Sephardi power and influence was at its height. The magnificent interior is almost entirely in its original condition and has been painted by many of the great Dutch artists. There is no electricity and lighting is painstakingly provided by 1000 candles. The Synagogue complex also contains the famous Ets Hayyim library and a Treasury where a treasure trove of objects collected over many centuries can be viewed.
The Jewish Museum complex comprises four Ashkenazi synagogues (two large and two small) which have been linked, namely the Great Synagogue (the first Ashkenazi synagogue, 1671), the Upstairs synagogue (1686), the Third Synagogue (1700) and the New Synagogue (1730). The museum traces the history of Jewish settlement from around 1600 when, in its words, the first New Christians (Conversos) arrived in Amsterdam. These were Jews whose ancestors had converted to Christianity at the end of the 15th Century, usually under duress. Other immigrants, Jews from Italy, North Africa and the Ottoman Empire also made their way to Amsterdam, some of them descendants of families who had once been expelled from Spain.
One of the highlights is Emmanuel de Witte’s portrayal of the interior of Portuguese synagogue (around 1680) which Abba Eban described as, “One of the most sumptuous depictions of Jewish life in Amsterdam. [49]
Anne Frank House is a four-story house culminating in the Annex, hidden behind a bookcase, where eight Jews including Anne Frank and her family hid between July 1942 and August 1944. On one of the walls is a map of Normandy on which Otto Frank marked the progress of the Allied armies. Of the eight who hid only Otto survived and on his return to Amsterdam was given the diary. On 9 October 1942, Anne Frank wrote in her diary: “The British radio speaks of their being gassed.” [50]
The Holocaust Memorial, opened in 2021, comprises four structures each bearing a Hebrew letter making up the word Lizkor (Lamed, zayin, cuff and resh) which can be read from the sky. The monument was designed by the architect Daniel Libeskind. The structure contains over 102 000 names of Jews, Sinti and Roma murdered by the Nazis – one name per brick. The age of each victim is stated followed by the number of years or months or days of their lives. Below the name of Annelies Frank (known as Anne) is written 15 years. The monument records that 140 000 Jews lived in the Netherlands before the war, of whom 107 000 were deported and only 5000 returned from the camps.
The Auschwitz Memorial in Wertheim Park comprises six large pieces of cracked mirrors and the text “Nooit Meer Auschwitz.” The cracked glass reflects the message that after Auschwitz the sky will always be scarred.
The Rijksmuseum contains several items of Jewish interest including Rembrandt’s Isaac and Rebecca, known as the Jewish Bride and Jeremiah Lamenting the Destruction of Jerusalem.
Beth Haim by Ouderkerke on the Amstel is the Jewish cemetery was consecrated in 1614 and represents the first formal recognition of the Jewish community of Amsterdam. The main entrance is on the river, bodies being transported there for burial by boat. The cemetery covers a large area and most of the gravestones are sunken into the peat. About 28 000 Jews are buried there including Menashe ben Israel and Spinoza’s parents and grandparents. Baruch Spinoza is, of course, not buried here. The first Jew buried in the cemetery was Don Manuel Pimental who was reputedly the wealthiest member of the Neve Shalom synagogue and who had purchased the land in 1614 a year before his death. The second burial was that of Samuel Palache. No other Jewish graveyard contains as many sculptured figures. To ensure that Kohanim do not transgress by coming too close to the graves, the areas of the graves are marked off by hedges that are mostly above head height. These form a maze, and it is easy to get lost.
Bernard Katz, a frequent contributor to Jewish Affairs is a Chartered Accountant who does freelance corporate finance advisory, investigations and sits on several boards.
NOTES
[1] Encyclopaedia Judaica, Keter Publishing House, 1972, 12:973-974 hereafter cited as “EJ”
[2] Ibid, op cit, 12:975
[3] Nadler, Steven, Rembrandt’s Jews, The University of Chicago Press, 2003, p150
[4] Ibid, p151
[5] Ibid, p17
[6] Ibid, pp29-30
[7] Sachar, Howard, The Course of Modern Jewish History, Vintage Books, 1990, p28
[8] EJ, op cit, 12:977
[9] Ibid, 2:897-898
[10] Nadler, op cit, pp 98-103
[11] Dimont, Max, Jews, God and History, Revised and Updated Edition, Mentor, 1994, p367
[12] EJ, op cit, 4:1323
[13] Sachar, Howard, The Course of Modern Jewish History, New Revised Edition, Vintage Books, 1990, p696
[14] Kitzler, Edward, Jewish Pirates of the Caribbean, Anchor Books, 2008, x
[15] Ibid, p78
[16] Ibid, pp84,86
[17] Ibid, p85
[18] Ibid, p86
[19] Ibid, pp123,130,231
[20] Nadler, op cit, p128
[21] Ibid, p50
[22] Ibid, p44
[23] Ibid, p45
[24] Nadler, p48
[25] Ibid
[26] Ibid, p71
[27] Ibid, p76
[28] EJ, op cit, 15:276
[29] Eban, Abba, Heritage: Civilization and the Jews, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1984, pp205-6
[30] Eban, op cit, p206
[31] EJ, op cit, 11:855-857
[32] Dwork, Deborah, van Pelt, Robert-Jan, The Netherlands, The World Reacts to the Holocaust, Wyman, David, Editor, The John Hopkins University Press, 1996, p47.
[33] EJ, op cit, 2:900
[34] Vital, David, A People Apart, Oxford University Press, 1999, p61
[35] EJ, op cit, 12:981
[36] Ibid, 2:901
[37] Dwork, op cit, p51
[38] Jewish Museum of Amsterdam
[39] Dwork, op cit, p55
[40] Ibid, p52
[41] Ibid, p54
[42] Ibid, p62
[43] Ibid, p71
[44] Ibid, quoting Han Lammers, p65
[45] Ibid, pp65-66
[46] Ibid, p65
[47] Sachar, op cit, p641
[48] Jewish Museum of Amsterdam
[49] Eban, op cit, p204
[50] Sachar, op cit, p543
