(Author: Bernard Katz, Vol. 78, #3, Spring-Summer 2023)
Jewish Presence
Sephardi tradition maintains that Jewish settlement in the territory that is now Portugal dates to Roman times after the destruction of the Temple in 70 CE. Evidence of Jews living in Portugal goes back to 300 CE, as confirmed by the edicts of Elvira proscribing, inter alia, “taking food with the Jews.”[1]
Portugal was founded as a country by Afonso Henriques (later King Afonso I, 1143-85) in 1143. After securing control of the territory by defeating his mother (1128), he secured a major victory over the Moors in 1139 and later, in 1147, conquered Lisbon. At the time Jews were already settled in the country and Afonso employed a Jewish treasurer. During the reign of King Afonso III (1248-79) the Reconquista was completed with the capture of the Algarve and Lisbon became the capital (1255). Since then the borders of Portugal have remained substantially unchanged. The Jewish community became recognised as an autonomous and distinct legal entity and as a result of access to royalty, achieved disproportionate prominence in society.[2] The Jewish historian Cecil Roth writes that the Jews were generally well treated, enjoyed relative autonomy in religious matters and exerted great influence in the financial administration of the country.[3] Despite an isolated attack on the community of Lisbon in 1449, Portuguese Jewry had avoided the anti-Jewish violence and actions in Spain of 1391 and the 15th Century.[4]
Portugal’s Prominence in the Age of Discovery
Portugal was the world’s first global empire. In 1415, during the reign of John I (1385-1433), Portugal captured Ceuta in Morocco. John’s third son Henry the Navigator (1394-1460) set the age of discovery in motion by encouraging and financing some of the early expeditions. Bartholomew Diaz was the first to round the southern tip of Africa (1488) thus discovering the gateway to India. He was also responsible for showing that the best route around Africa was not to hug the coast but to go far west and then allow the winds to bring the ships back east. Vasco da Gama was the first to land in India and establish the “Route of Spices” (1498). Pedro Alvarez Cabral “discovered” Brazil (1500). Christopher Columbus initially tried to convince Portugal to back his expedition to find a route to India by travelling west. After Diaz’s expedition round the Cape, any possible interest Portugal may have had in supporting Columbus’ venture dissipated, and Columbus went to Spain, who sponsored his expedition (1492).
Expulsion of Jews from Spain and Portugal
The expulsion of Jews from Spain in 1492 was one of the most cataclysmic events in Jewish history.
The Jewish population of Spain prior to the expulsion probably numbered around 300 000.[5] It is estimated that in 1492 about half the Jewish population converted to Christianity rather than be exiled. The natural destination for those who were exiled was Portugal (given its proximity and relatively tolerant attitude) and indeed the majority of the exiles, estimated at around 100,000, crossed the border to Portugal.[6]
Despite opposition from the local Jewish community and the State Council to an influx of Spanish Jews, King John II, for financial motives, permitted them to enter. However only the wealthy, who were able to afford the steep financial payment, and artisans were permitted to remain in the country permanently. The rest were allowed a temporary stay of a maximum of eight months subject to the payment of a poll-tax.[7] Those that were to be exiled were promised ships to enable them to leave Portugal but this did not happen. The Jewish immigrants from Spain enriched Lisbon’s dynamism and their property provided much of the funding for Vasco da Gama’s expedition.
King Manuel “the Fortunate” (1495-1521) initially took a promising and more tolerant approach and allowed those Jews, who had not left within the eight months, to remain in Portugal. Manuel’s attitude towards the Jews changed after the opportunity arose for him to marry Isabella, eldest daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella (with his ultimate ambition being to unite Portugal and Spain under his family’s leadership). This marriage, however, came with the condition that Portuguese Jews would have to convert to Christianity or be expelled. On 5 December 1496 a decree was issued that all Jews would be expelled from Portugal within 10 months.
As time passed Manuel re-evaluated his decision to expel the Jews and concluded that they were too valuable to lose. His first measure, during Passover 1497, was against the children aged four to 14 who were all subjected to forced baptism. Jews exiting Portugal had to do so through the port of Lisbon, and they were given the choice of converting or becoming slaves of the king. Faced with this choice the majority converted.[8]
Manuel’s dream of gaining control of the entire Iberian Peninsula never materialised. Isabella died in childbirth and her son, recognised as the heir to Portugal, Castile and Aragon died in infancy. The Habsburg Philip “the Handsome” married Juanita, another daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, and as Ferdinand was unable to sire a male heir, the Habsburgs ultimately inherited, through Juanita, Castile and Aragon.
In 1492 there existed more than 100 Jewish Quarters comprising 30 000 Jews, which translated into 3% of the population of Portugal. With the influx of Jews from Spain the Jewish percentage of the population increased to almost 15%.
In 1506 a number of New Christians (as the Conversos were called) were caught celebrating Passover. They were arrested but later released. It was, however, followed by a tragic massacre claiming the lives of between 2000 to 4000 victims. King Manuel intervened to protect the New Christians and a number of the ringleaders were arrested and executed.[9]
Period of the Inquisition (1536-1821)
After the events of 1497, what was once a proud Jewish community of Portugal ceased to exist. Nevertheless, as Roth points out, those that remained behind were “titular” Christians, but in essence not much had changed, and Judaism was preserved in the privacy of their homes. Roth asserts that the New Christian practice of Judaism in Portugal was similar to that of Spain, but with an important difference. In Spain it was the “weaker” Jews who had submitted to Christianity but in Portugal it was the full spectrum of the community – the poor, the wealthy, the aristocratic, the ignorant, the learned, even the rabbis. This result, therefore, was that Crypto-Judaism in Portugal was of a much greater tenacity than in Spain. Moreover, in Portugal the authorities were less vigilant about persecuting the crypto-Jews who, as a result, had almost half a century to acclimatise to their new conditions. Judaism during this period could be practised in secret with relative impunity[10] although occasional outbursts against New-Christians did take place, such as the 1506 Lisbon massacre.
The Inquisition was only established in Portugal in 1536 and the first auto-de-fe took place in Lisbon in 1540. It was, however, not until 1597 that the Inquisition attained the same authority as it had in Spain.11] Note that this coincides with the period that Portugal was under the control of Spain (1580-1640).
While being officially forbidden to emigrate from Portugal, many Jews found ways to circumvent this edict[12] and the flow of emigrants continued until the end of the Inquisition period. Amsterdam became the leading city of the Portuguese Jewish Diaspora and Portuguese Jews were plentiful in the trading centres of the world. To hide their Jewish origins these Crypto-Jews referred to themselves as “Portuguese” and “Portuguese” became synonymous with “Jew.”[13]
The Inquisition was brought to an end during the reign of King Joseph I (1750-77) through the initiative of the Marques de Pombal who was the power behind the “titular” monarch. Pombal has been accorded the epithet “enlightened” and his power was solidified by his handling of the catastrophic earthquake of 1755 which destroyed much of Lisbon. Over time, the activity of the Inquisition diminished, and the last instance of a capital punishment was recorded in 1761. In 1773 Pombal abolished the legal distinction between Old and New Christians with the result that New Christians as a separate class disappeared. The last auto-de-fe took place in 1791, and in 1821 the Inquisition was formerly abolished.
During the period of the Inquisition over 40 000 “Jews” were implicated of whom some 30 000 were sentenced at auto-de-fes; 29 000 reconciled with the Church, 600 were burnt in effigy, and 1200 were burnt at the stake. In the majority of cases the charges leveled were that of “Judaizing.”[14]
A well-known, but probably apocryphal story recounts how King Joseph I was not satisfied with the Minister in his government, Pombal, who had instituted policies in the late 18th century to render the Inquisition almost powerless. He intimated that if he had his own way he would make all the descendants of New Christians wear yellow hats, like their unconverted ancestors. On the next day Pombal arrived at court with three yellow hats; one for His Majesty, one for the Inquisitor General and one for himself.[15]
Notable Portuguese Jews
Don Isaac Abrabanel (1437-1508), born in Lisbon, was a philosopher, biblical scholar, businessman and statesman. He succeeded his father as the treasurer to King Alfonso V (1432-1481). After a failed coup attempt against his successor John II (1481-1495), he was forced to flee Portugal and became involved in tax farming for Ferdinand and Isabella in Castile. He tried unsuccessfully to persuade them to revoke the expulsion decree. Abrabanel later moved to Naples, where he served in the administration of its king until it was conquered by the French (1494), who destroyed his library. The final period of his life was spent in Venice, where he was involved in negotiations between Venice and Portugal to regulate the spice trade.
Pedro Nunez (1492-1577) was a New Christian with an apparent strong attachment to Judaism. He was a mathematician and geographer and in 1529 was appointed cosmographer to the Portuguese crown. He is credited with being the father of modern cartography.[16]
Don Joseph Nasi (1524-79) became one of the most influential individuals in the Turkish Empire. His aunt and mother in law Dona Gracia Nasi (1510-69) managed the significant business interests after the death of her husband with the assistance of Don Joseph, and together they built and expanded the House of Nasi into one of the richest merchant houses in Europe. They were Portuguese New Christians, and after leaving Portugal they eventually sought refuge in Turkey where they were able to practice their Judaism openly.
Abraham Zacuto was a Jewish scholar, mathematician and an astronomer. Forced to leave Spain in 1492, he moved to Lisbon, where he became the royal astronomer to John II and later Manuel I. In 1497, he escaped to North Africa in 1497 to avoid forced conversion. He died in either Jerusalem in 1515 or in Damascus in 1520.
Zacuto was consulted on Vasco da Gama’s expedition, which he supported and encouraged. Da Gama and his crew were trained to use the copper astrolabe Zacuto had developed to determine latitude at sea, as well as his astronomical charts. Columbus is also said to have relied upon Zacuto’s inventions and in fact Zacuto’s charts (Almanac) purportedly saved Columbus’s life. With Zacuto’s charts predicting solar and lunar eclipses, and knowing a lunar eclipse was about to take place, Columbus used this information to threaten the natives that he would make the sky stay dark.
Menasseh ben Israel (1604-1657) was born into a New Christian family in Madeira after his father had escaped from Lisbon following being a penitent in an auto-de-fe. The family returned to Judaism after moving to Amsterdam. He is best known for his trip to England in 1655, where he submitted a petition to Oliver Cromwell requesting that Jews be allowed readmission to England.
Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677) was born in Amsterdam and became one of the most important philosophers of the early modern period. He was excommunicated in 1656 for his radical views, which were at odds with Judaism. His father had fled Portugal to avoid the Inquisition.
Modern Period
Jews began resettling in Portugal at the beginning of the 19th Century. Lisbon was an intermediate port between Gibraltar and England and most of these Jews were from Gibraltar (with English citizenship) and practised their religion secretly under British protection. The early Jewish re-settlers also included Jews from Morocco and England.
Although official recognition of the Jewish community was not possible, in the second half of the 19th Century, autonomous private Jewish associations were formed by the unofficial community. The first step towards official recognition of the Jewish community is dated to 1868, when permission was granted for a Jewish cemetery. Official recognition was granted in 1910.[17]
During World War II, 45 000 Jews passed through Lisbon.[18] Although most of them moved on to countries in the free world, the few that remained changed the mostly Sephardi demographics of the Lisbon community.
After the war the Jewish population remained relatively stable until the 1960s, when it started declining. After joining the European Union (EU) Jewish immigration mainly from Brazil and other EU countries took place and there is some optimism that numbers will continue to increase.[19]
In 2015, a law was passed entitling Sephardi Jews who could prove Portuguese ancestry to Portuguese citizenship.
It is estimated that 2000 to 3000 Jews live in Portugal today.
Places of Jewish interest
Jews were living in Lisbon in the 12th Century when Afonso I defeated the Moors and established the kingdom of Portugal. They were prominent in court circles as tax farmers, physicians and astronomers. A magnificent synagogue was constructed in 1260 and around this time Lisbon became the seat of the chief rabbi.[20]
From 1810 many prayer houses existed in Lisbon, but they were humble establishments located in the houses of residents. In 1904 the Shaare Tikva Synagogue was inaugurated, designed by one of the most prominent architects of the time. The synagogue was built inside a walled yard and was not permitted a façade facing a public street. Rabbi Suiza, formerly of Cape Town, is today the rabbi of the community.
Rua Judiaria (Jewish Street) can be found in the Alfama district, where a Jewish Quarter was once located. A menorah on one of the modest apartments indicates the Jewish Community Centre, which hopes to bring Jewish life back to this area.
In 2006, the Lisbon Jewish Memorial was erected on Rossio Square near the Sao Domingos Church to commemorate the 500th anniversary of the massacre of Jews who had been forcibly converted to Christianity. The massacres began in the church.
There is currently no Jewish museum in Lisbon but one is planned and the Tikva Museum is expected to open in 2024.
The Jewish community of Lisbon today numbers around 400 families.
Belmonte is a town in north-eastern Portugal near the Spanish border. Here, crypto-Jewish traditions were more faithfully preserved than anywhere else in the country.[21] The first written reference to Jews in Belmonte is in the town’s royal charter granted in 1199, although this reference is not clear evidence of Jewish presence.[22] A stone with a Hebrew inscription dated 1297, found in 1910, was probably originally intended to be placed above the ark.[23] However, a poster at the Jewish Museum of Belmonte where the stone is housed notes that it is one of the greatest enigmas of the museum as historical research has not confirmed whether the stone belonged to the synagogue.[24]
In 1917 Samuel Schwarz, a Polish-Jewish mining engineer “discovered” a remnant crypto-Jewish community in Belmonte that “having miraculously survived persecution preserves to this day its purity of race and consciousness of faith despite four hundred years of Christianization and three hundred of Inquisition.”[v] Schwarz noted that these families had married exclusively within their own ranks and in the countryside were called Jews by their neighbours.[25]
Schwarz recalled that on his first visit to Belmonte he was struck by the large numbers of Marrano families, who the Christians lost no opportunity to point out to him. One merchant, anxious to gain exclusivity in the supply of provisions for the mining operation Schwarz was directing, warned him against buying anything from his competitor adding, “It is enough for me to tell you he is a Jew.”[26] Schwarz reported that this community “had not the slightest notion of the existence of Jews or a Judaism outside their Marrano circles.”[27]
Proving his Jewishness to the crypto-Jews of Belmonte was a challenge – he was persistently asked to recite some prayers for them but the elder women who maintained the traditions had no knowledge of Hebrew and were mostly illiterate. However eventually, when pressed, he recited the Shema and recognizing the word Ad–ai one of the women proclaimed: “He is a Jew, for he has uttered the name Ad–ai.” From then on Schwarz was warmly accepted by the community.[28]
The Judaism practised by this community was, as can be expected, a very watered down form of the original. Schwarz mentioned a number of observances and traditions that were no longer kept or which were kept in a modified manner. Circumcision, Rosh Hashanah, Sukkoth and shechita were no longer observed nor were there any Hebrew books, talith or tefillin. Yom Kippur was observed but a day late, Matzah was only baked on the third day of Passover – however, no bread was consumed during the first two days. Abstention from work on the Sabbath was no longer observed except for the four or five weeks before Passover and Yom Kippur when cessation from work was the rule. Sabbath candles were lit but great care was taken to keep them away from prying eyes. The prohibition against eating pork was only rigorously observed on the holy days and during a period of between thirty and forty days preceding Passover and Yom Kippur. Schwarz reported that mixed marriages, which had been rare up to 20 years prior to his visit, were by then more common.[29]
Centuries of intermarriage in a small genetic pool have had serious consequences. The men and women are thin and weak, many are blind or have problems with their eyesight, many suffer from respiratory problems. Their voices are noticeably croaky when one speaks to them.
During the 1980s, after the fall of the Salazar regime, other researchers “rediscovered” the crypto-Jews of Belmonte. The situation of this community was popularised in the Jewish world after the release of a French documentary by Frederic Brenner, “The Last Marranos” in 1991. At about this time 85 members of the community formerly converted to Judaism.[30] Today the community numbers about 40 individuals, with many of the younger members having left to study in Israel.
The Synagogue of Belmonte, Bet Eliahou, opened on 4 December 1996, symbolically five hundred years to the day on which the expulsion decree from Portugal was signed.
The Jewish Museum of Belmonte was opened in 2005. It displays items belonging to mainly two families, including a small portable mezuzah for individual use decorated with a hand-engraved menorah which dates to the 16th and 17th Centuries. Copies of the 59 Inquisition “Processes” relating to New Christians of the area are also housed in the museum. None apparently led to an execution.
The word Marrano was used by Samuel Schwarz and by Cecil Roth. Rabbi Salas, one of the previous rabbis of the community of Belmonte was quoted as saying in 2006 that this word no longer carried the pejorative connotation. Yet today many still view the use of this word as offensive.
Jewish resettlement in Porto commenced in the early 19th Century. Similarly to Lisbon, these were Sephardi Jews who came mostly from Morocco and Gibraltar.[31]
The Kadoorie Mekor Haim Synagogue, constructed in the neo-Moorish style, was inaugurated in 1938, and is the largest synagogue in the Iberian Peninsula. It owes its existence to Captain Barros Basta, who has been referred to as the Portuguese Dreyfus. Captain Basta was raised in a Christian family in Porto but, after discovering his Jewish ancestry from his dying grandfather, converted to Judaism. Shortly before World War II he was stripped of his rank after false charges were leveled against him, and died in poverty in 1961.[32]
The Porto Jewish Museum contains exhibits of the history of Portuguese Jewry, Porto, and the 20th and 21st Centuries.
The community has recently been involved in a controversy concerning the issuing of documents relating to Sephardi citizenship eligibility. They accused the Portuguese authorities of the “greatest antisemitic conspiracy of the 21st Century.” This outburst was in turn countered by the World Jewish Congress, which accused the Porto Jewish community of “espousing spurious conspiracy theories.”[33]
The Porto Jewish community comprises 700 official members from more than 30 countries; probably more than 1000 Jews live in the town.[34]
Cascais, a town and municipality in the Lisbon District, is home to the largest Chabad community centre in Europe. The rabbi is of Sephardi heritage.
Bernard Katz, a frequent contributor to Jewish Affairs is a Chartered Accountant who does freelance corporate finance advisory, investigations and sits on several boards.
NOTES
[1] Encyclopaedia Judaica, Keter Publishing House, 1972, 13:919 hereafter cited as “EJ”.
[2] Ibid
[3] Roth, Cecil, A Short History of the Jewish People, East and West Library, pp248-9.
[4] Ibid, p249
[5] Netanyahu, Benzion, The Marranos of Spain, Cornell University Press, Third Edition, 1992, p245
[6] EJ, op cit, 15:241
[7] Roth, op cit, p249
[8] Roth, op cit, pp250-251
[9] EJ, op cit, 11: 300-301
[10] Roth, op cit, p251
[11] Ibid, p252
[12] Ibid
[13] EJ, op cit, 13:923
[14] Ibid, 13:924
[15] Roth, Cecil, The Spanish Inquisition, W W Norton & Company, 1964, pp249-250
[16] EJ, op cit, 12:1273
[17] Lisbon Jewish Community (cilisboa.org)
[18] EJ, op cit, 11:302
[19] Lisbon Jewish Community (cilisboa.org)
[20] 11:299
[21] EJ, op cit, 4:442
[22] http://www.jewishwikipedia.info/belmonte.html
[23] EJ, op cit, 4:442
[24] Jewish Museum, Belmonte
[25] Schwarz, Samuel, The Crypto-Jews of Portugal, Shofar, Fall 1999, Vol.18, No 1, p40 reprinted from the Menorah Journal, Vol. XII (1926)
[26] EJ, op cit, 4:442
[27] http://www.jewishwikipedia.info/belmonte.html
[28] EJ, op cit, 4:442
[29] Ibid, p45
[30] Ibid, pp44-45
[31] Ibid, p42
[32] The Jewish Museum of Oporto – The Portuguese Jewish News
[33] Daltroff, Lucy, ‘Jewish Spirit in Porto’, The Jewish Chronicle, 8 May 2022
[34] Sokol, Sam, World Jewish Congress Accuses Porto Jewish Community of Peddling “Spurious Conspiracy
Theories”, Haaretz, 31 August 2022 Ibid, pp48-50
[35] Daltroff, op cit
