(Author: Bernard Katz, Vol. 77, # 1, Summer 2022)
The period of Jeremiah is characterised by Babylonia supplanting Assyria as the world superpower. This transformation to a new world order presented major challenges for the nations of the region, including Judah, and these were further complicated by the influence, ambition and the waxing and waning strength of Egypt.
The prophecies of Jeremiah began in the 13th year of the reign of King Josiah of Judah and continued during the reigns of King Jehoiakim and King Zedekiah (Jer 1:2-3). There is no evidence that Josiah so much as acknowledged Jeremiah. Jehoiakim dismissed his prophecies with disdain and while Zedekiah sought his advice he appears to have been too weak to act on it.
The table below provides the dates of the kings referred to in this article. In respect of the kings of Judah it follows the approach of Haim Tadmor.[1]
King Manasseh
Manasseh became king of Judah after the death of his father Hezekiah. He was 12 years old when he assumed the throne and ruled for 55 years (II Kings 21:1). The kingship of Manasseh was characterised by peaceful co-existence in the region albeit at the expense of spiritual decay. Manasseh’s reign preceded the prophecies of Jeremiah, but its consequences left an indelible imprint on the period that followed. According to Jeremiah, G-d’s retribution was directly attributable to Manasseh: “I shall make them a horror for all the kingdoms of the earth, because of Manasseh son of Hezekiah, king of Judah, for what he did in Jerusalem” (Jer 15:4).
Kings provides little information about Manasseh, and none of it is favourable. He did what was evil in the eyes of God (II Kings 21:2). He rebuilt the high places that his father Hezekiah had destroyed and erected altars to Baal (II Kings 21:3). He passed his son through the fire, practiced astrology, read omens, performed necromancy, conjured up spirits (ibid. 21:6) and shed much innocent blood (ibid. 21:16). Kings also blames the subsequent destruction of Judah and Jerusalem by the Babylonians on Manasseh’s conduct: “I will wipe out Jerusalem, as one would wipe a plate thoroughly, and then turn it upside down” (ibid. 21:13).
Chronicles provides some intriguing additional information about Manasseh, declaring that he was captured by officers of the Assyrian army and with hunting hooks and chains taken prisoner to Babylonia (II Chronicles 33:11). In his distress he repented (ibid. 33:12), and after his return to Jerusalem, he fortified the city, removed the idols from the Temple and rebuilt the Altar of God (ibid. 33:14-16). Chronicles, unlike Jeremiah and Kings, does not lay the blame for the destruction of Jerusalem on Manasseh.
The Talmud names three kings who have no share in the World to Come, namely: Jeroboam, Ahab and Manasseh (Sanhedrin 101b). It narrates that Manasseh appeared to Rav Ashi in a dream, and Rav Ashi asked him: “Since you are so learned, why did you worship idols?” Manasseh replied: “Had you been there, you would have lifted the bottom of your garment and run after me” (Ibid. 102b).The Talmud mentions that as a consequence of Rav Ashi’s dream, Rabbi Yehuda sympathised with Manasseh’s predicament and expressed a dissenting view that Manasseh does have a portion in the World to Come (Ibid. 102b).
Although Assyria did not impose its religion on its vassal states, in practice, the dominant Assyrian culture was absorbed. The American archaeologist William Albright notes that no other period of Cuneiform records has yielded anything remotely comparable to the mass of tablets relating to magic, divination and astrology, and remarks that it would have been practically impossible for a vassal state not to be flooded with such idolatrous and superstitious practices.[2]
The reason for the arrest and exile of Manasseh is not provided in the Bible or in extra biblical sources and has caused much unresolved debate and speculation. One possibility is that it was related to the unsuccessful rebellion instigated by Egypt and Tyre, and possibly other vassals. After Assyria’s victorious campaign in 671 BCE over Egypt and Tyre, Esarhaddon erected a stele at Zenjirli (today in Turkey close to the Syrian border). The stele contains two miniaturised persons held on a leash by Esarhaddon – the one with negroid features, the son of Tirhakah, king of Egypt and the other with a beard and pointed hat, Baal, king of Tyre.
A problem that has troubled some biblical commentators regarding the account in Chronicles is that if Manasseh was captured by the Assyrians, it was probably due to Assyrian concerns of rebellion or disloyalty. In that event, it is unlikely that he would have been able to build Jerusalem’s wall or undertake a religious revolution on his return without a reaction from Assyria. Some commentators suggest that the order of events should be reversed and that Manasseh’s return to God and the building of the wall preceded his capture.[3]
Mordechai Cogan, former professor of Biblical History at the Hebrew University, regards the opinion that Manasseh’s incarceration resulted from him allying himself with Egypt as speculative.[4] In his view the picture that emerges from the extant Assyrian texts is that Judah remained submissive throughout the reign of Esarhaddon.[5]
Manasseh is mentioned twice in the lists of Esarhaddon’s western vassals who were obliged to contribute towards construction projects and to provide troops for the Assyrian campaigns in Egypt. An excerpt from an inscription written on a hexagonal prism reads as follows:
“I mobilised the kings of Hatti and ‘Beyond-the-River’: Baal, king of Tyre; Manasseh, king of Judah ….I gave orders for all of them to drag to Nineveh, my lordly city, with exertion and difficulty, large timbers, long beams, (and) thin boards of cedar and cypress….”[6]
Cogan remarks that the placement of the name of Manasseh second on the list of the names of the kings could reflect his influential political standing in the West.[7]
King Josiah
Josiah became king of Judah after the assassination of his father Amon, son of Manasseh in 639 BCE. Josiah was eight years old at the time and reigned for 31 years (II Kings 22:1). The Bible acknowledges Josiah as a righteous king who “did what was proper in the eyes of Hashem…he did not deviate to the right or the left” (Ibid. 22:2), “there had never been a king like him who returned to Hashem with all his heart, with all his soul, and with all his resources…and after him no one arose like him” (Ibid. 23:25). Josiah restored religious practice, undertook an extensive repair of the Temple (Ibid. 22:5), cleansed the Temple of idols (Ibid. 23:4), and prohibited child sacrifice (Ibid. 23:10).
During the renovation of the Temple the Scroll of the Torah was discovered (II Kings 22:8 and II Chronicles 34:14). The exact nature of the Scroll has been the topic of much debate which is summarised by Alex Israel in his book II Kings: In a Whirlwind.[8] Many commentators within the Jewish tradition believe this book to be an ancient Torah scroll written by Moses himself. The biblical commentator Seforno concurred that it was indeed Moses’s scroll, although not the five books of the Torah. The founder of modern biblical criticism, De Wette, in 1805, claimed the “Book of the Law” to be Deuteronomy and this theory, later adopted by Wellhausen, has become the accepted view in biblical academic scholarship. Essentially it argues that Deuteronomy was composed in the late 7th century BCE by the priests of Josiah’s period in order to stimulate Josiah’s religious reforms and passed off as an ancient text. This theory is supported by significant linguistic similarities between Deuteronomy and the later prophets. Alex Israel disputes this interpretation and concludes that besides not being tenable in terms of Jewish faith, many modern scholars have backed off from De Wette’s speculative claim, for Deuteronomy does not match Josiah’s reform in all its details. To further support his case he adds that whilst bama/ bamot appears 35 times in Kings it does not appear even once in Deuteronomy.
King Ashurbanipal of Assyria and his appointed king of Babylonia both died in 627 BCE (the year in which Jeremiah began his prophecies). Nabopolassar (the father of Nebuchadnezzar), a Babylonian of unknown provenance became king of Babylonia and in the aftermath of Ashurbanipal’s death regained for Babylonia its independence from Assyria.
The Babylonian Chronicles are a series of tablets, written in Cuneiform and in various sizes which chronologically record the historical events of the time. Unfortunately a complete set of the tablets have not been recovered and hence gaps exist in the record. The tablet referred to by Cogan as Text 42: “The Reign of Nabopolassar: The Fall of Nineveh” covers the period 616-[609] BCE and provides context to the final years of Josiah’s reign.[9]
The period towards the end of King Josiah’s reign was characterised by the ascendency of Babylon and the decline of Assyria. In 612 BCE (corresponding to year 14 of Nabopolassar’s reign) Babylonia (in alliance with Media) captured the Assyrian capital of Nineveh. The Babylonian Chronicles record the event as follows: “[Year 14.] The king of Akkad mobilized his troops…. [They encamp]ed against Nineveh….they inflicted a great [defeat]….”[10]
Following the capture of Nineveh the king of Assyria decamped to [11] which was conquered by the Babylonians in 610 BCE.[12] The rise of Babylonia as the new superpower concerned Egypt and in 609 BCE, under the command of Necho II an unsuccessful attempt was made to retake Harran. The Babylonian Chronicles record that “…a large Egyptian force…crossed the River (Euphrates) and marched to conquer Harran…. [13]The Babylonian Chronicles report that the combined force of Assyria and Egypt failed to dislodge the Babylonians from Harran despite heavy casualties.[14] This failure to relieve Harran marks the end of Assyria as an independent political entity.
It was on his way to Harran, at Megiddo, that Josiah confronted Necho and was killed (II Kings 23:29; II Chronicles 35:20-24).
The reason why Josiah confronted the mighty Necho of Egypt has puzzled scholars and no definitive conclusion has been reached. It is possible that Josiah had warm relations with Babylonia and wished to lend it his support against Assyria, or perhaps he was obligated in terms of a treaty with Babylonia, or perhaps he had concerns of a resurgent Egypt and wanted to prevent this outcome, or perhaps he was summoned by Necho to meet with him.
Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook in his essay “Eulogy in Jerusalem” written in 1904 on the occasion of the death of Theodor Herzl contrasted King Ahab, an astute and capable political leader with a love of Israel but a wicked man lacking in the spiritual realm, with Josiah, a spiritual man with a flawed political vision. He concluded that a combination of political and spiritual or Zionistic and Torah qualities is what is necessary.[15]
The Greek historian Herodotus reported that it was Necho who discovered that Africa (which he refers to as Libya) is “washed on all sides by the sea, except where it is attached to Asia.” This discovery was made after he had sent a number of ships manned by Phoenicians from Egypt which travelled down the east coast of Africa and returned to Egypt via the Mediterranean. “On their return,” reports Herodotus “they declared…that in sailing round Libya they had the sun on their right hand.”[16]
The 13th year of Josiah’s reign, when Jeremiah’s prophecies commenced, corresponds to 627 BCE, a momentous year in the history of the region, during which King Ashurbanipal of Assyria died, Nabopollassar acceded to the throne of Babylon and Babylon regained its independence from Assyria. The Bible provides no indication of any relationship between Jeremiah and Josiah or whether Josiah even acknowledged Jeremiah. Jewish tradition asserts that Jeremiah was close to Josiah but this view is not substantiated by the Bible.[17] Whilst the actions of Josiah in casting off Assyrian influence and a return to religious practice must have encouraged Jeremiah and he lamented the death of Josiah, he was less sanguine as to whether a spiritual rejuvenation within the population was possible – a necessary precondition to avert the impending catastrophe.
King Jehoiakim
After the death of Josiah, his son Jehoahaz was appointed king of Judah but served for only three months. Necho disapproved of this appointment and Jehoahaz was arrested and exiled to Egypt. Necho appointed a second son of Josiah, Jehoiakim, one presumably more favorably disposed to Egypt, as king and exacted tribute (II Kings 23:31-35). Jehoiakim reigned for 11 years – five as a vassal to Egypt, three as a vassal to Babylonia and three in conflict with Babylonia. According to the Bible Jehoiakim “did what was evil in the eyes of Hashem” (II Kings 23:37; II Chronicles 36:5).
At the start of Jehoiakim’s reign Egypt was the regional power but by its end Babylonia was dominant. The events of this period are recorded in the Babylonian Chronicles, and in the biblical books of II Kings, II Chronicles and Jeremiah. The two Babylonian tablets of the period are referred to by Cogan as Text 43: “The Reign of Nabopolassar – The Closing Years”[18] which covers the years 608-6 BCE and Text 44: “The Reign of Nebuchadnezzar – To Jerusalem,”[19] which covers the years 605-595 BCE.
Necho may have been unsuccessful in his attempt to dislodge the Babylonians from Harran in 609 BCE but nevertheless retained a force at its garrison at Carchemish (today in Turkey just north of the Syrian border) which is not far from Harran. In 606 BCE, after the withdrawal of the main Babylonian army, the Egyptian forces at Carchemish were able to push back the Babylonians from their border positions.[20]
The Egyptian advance from Carchemish elicited a sharp response from Babylonia and Nebuchadnezzar (eldest son of Nabopolassar and by then king) mobilised his forces and in 605 BCE, in what has become known in history as the Battle of Carchemish inflicted a heavy defeat on Egypt. According to the Babylonian Chronicles, Nebuchadnezzar “inflicted a [defeat] upon them and wiped them out of existence.”[21] The Egyptian garrison at Carchemish was conquered and the rout continued as far as Hamath (today in Syria) a far distance to the south. The crushing Egyptian defeat is reflected in the Bible as follows: “The king of Egypt no longer left his country, for the king of Babylonia had occupied from the Brook of Egypt to the Euphrates River, all [the land] that had belonged to the king of Egypt (II Kings 24:7).
The immediate effect of Egypt’s crushing defeat was that Judah, after being a vassal to Egypt for five years, became a vassal to Babylonia. The entry in the Babylonian Chronicles for 604 BCE records that in respect of Nebuchadnezzar: “All the kings of Hatti came before him and he received their rich tribute.”[22] It was at this time “in the fifth year of Jehoiakim, son of Josiah, king of Judah” that Jeremiah instructed the scribe Baruch son of Neriah to read his prophecy of the impending disaster in the Temple. Baruch complied with the instruction of Jeremiah and did so in the presence of all the people in the chamber of Gemariah son of Shaphan the scribe (Jer 36:8-10). Gemariah, together with others tried to protect Jeremiah by advising Baruch that he and Jeremiah should go into hiding (Jer 36:19). Jeremiah’s scroll was then taken to Jehoiakim who was at his “winter house” and who disdainfully burnt each section in the fireplace after it had been read to him, despite the pleas of Gemariah and his colleagues that he not do so (Jer 36: 22-25).
In 1982 the seal of Gemariah son of Shaphan was found in the City of David in a dig led by Israeli archaeologist Yigal Shiloh. It was the first time that a royal minister whose name appeared on a bulla (seal impression) was found in the City of David excavations.[23] The seal impression of Baruch son of Neriah, of unknown provenance, surfaced in the antiques market and was evaluated by Nahman Avigad, the leading Israeli expert on ancient seals who believed it to be genuine.[24] This bulla, contained in the collection of the Israel Museum, has since been re-analysed and shown to be a forgery.[25]
The succession of triumphs of Babylon against Egypt met with a setback when Nebuchadnezzar decided to attack Egypt in 601 BCE. The Babylonian Chronicles record that: “They fought one another …and they inflicted heavy blows on one another. The king of Akkad and his troops turned and [returned] to Babylon.[26] After three years as a vassal of Babylonia, Nebuchadnezzar’s setback against Egypt emboldened Jehoiakim: “…Jehoiakim became a vassal to him for three years, but then he reneged and rebelled against him” (II Kings 24:1).
Rebellion was an act that Nebuchadnezzar could not tolerate and the Babylonian Chronicles record that in year 7 of his reign, on a date which corresponds to 16 March 597 BCE: “He encamped against the city of Judah and in the month Adar, day 2, he captured the city; he seized the king. He appointed in it a king of his choice; he t[ook] its rich spoil and brought it into Babylon.”[27]
The Bible complements and supplements this account. Kings is silent on the fate of Jehoiakim but Chronicles reports that he was bound in chains and taken to Babylon (II Chronicles 36:6). Both Kings and Chronicles confirm that the king in Jerusalem at the time of its capture, the king who was “seized”, was the son of Jehoiakim, Jehoiachin (who only reigned for three months), and that the appointed “king of his choice”, was Zedekiah (II Kings 24:15,17; II Chronicles 36:9-11).
Jeremiah railed against the injustice and exploitation perpetrated by Jehoiakim: “Woe to him who builds his house without righteousness and his upper stories without justice; who works his fellow without payment, and does not give him his wages; who says, ‘I shall build myself a house of large dimensions and spacious upper stories,’ and he breaks open windows for himself, and it is panelled with cedar and painted with bright colours” (Jer. 22:13-14).
Israeli archaeologist Yochanan Aharoni claimed to have found Jehoiakim’s palace in his excavations at Ramat Rachel about four kilometres from Jerusalem. In his view the architecture of the structure left no doubt that the excavation was a king’s place which he described as “most magnificent”. Aharoni dates the palace to the time of Jehoiakim based on a jug handle that was found in the same layer of destruction as the palace. The inscription, which reads “[belonging] to Eliakim, lad of Jokhan” was studied by William Fulbright who concluded that “Jokhan” refers to Jehoiakim’s son Jehoiachin. The dig also uncovered a stone window railing (balustrade) about which Aharoni asks: “Is it too bold to speculate that the window railings found in the trenches are the windows described by the Prophet?” Aharoni notes that on the white limestone, remnants of red paint and drill marks have been preserved, and that based on other archaeological finds it is presumed that the cedar wood referred to by Jeremiah would have been connected to it.[28] These conclusions reached by Aharoni have since been disputed – the more recent opinion asserts that the palace was built by Hezekiah and destroyed by Sennacherib, and either rebuilt by Hezekiah or Manasseh.[29]
Jehoiakim’s reign of 11 years was characterised by shifting allegiances – placed on the throne by Egypt he remained loyal for five years until Babylon’s crushing defeat of Egypt at Carchemish after which he switched (or perhaps was forced) to switch his allegiance to Babylon. He remained loyal to Babylon for three years and then rebelled. Jeremiah’s prophecies during this period clearly were influential and he was a force to be reckoned with – for otherwise the authorities would not have been so disturbed by what he had to say and his life would not have been endangered. Irrespective of this – Jehoiakim treated his message with disdain and contempt.
Jehoiachin
Jehoiachin (Jechoniah) was 18 years old (according to Kings) and eight (according to Chronicles) when he became king – both agree that his reign was only three months (II Kings 24:8; II Chronicles 36:9). He was exiled by Nebuchadnezzar to Babylon together with all the elite of the land leaving only the poorest behind (II Kings 24:14). This conquest of Jerusalem in 597 BCE seems to have taken place without a major battle or siege – the threat of which seems to have been a sufficient motivation for surrender. After the death of Nebuchadnezzar, Evil-merodoch became king of Babylon. He released Jehoiachin from jail, invited him to regularly dine at the king’s table and provided him with an allowance (II Kings 25:27-30).
Jeremiah refers derisively to Jehoiachin: “Is this man Coniah a despised, shattered statue, or an unwanted vessel?” (Jer 22:28)
Administrative documents relating to the 13th year of the reign of Nebuchadnezzar (592 BCE) lists deliveries of oil for the subsistence of Jehoiachin and his five sons.[30]
King Zedekiah and the destruction of Jerusalem
Zedekiah, the third son of Josiah, reigned in Jerusalem during the 11 years culminating in the destruction of the First Temple in 586 BCE. Despite owing his position to Nebuchadnezzar, he ultimately rebelled against Babylonia and this action led to his downfall, the destruction of Jerusalem and the loss of Judah’s independence. According to the Bible he did what was evil in the eyes of God, and did not humble himself before Jeremiah the Prophet (II Chronicles 36:12). Zedekiah’s end was gruesome – with the situation in Jerusalem hopeless he fled but was apprehended – his sons were slaughtered in his presence, after which he was blinded and taken in leg-irons to Babylonia (II Kings 25:1-7).
Kings and Chronicles deal only briefly with Zedekiah and unfortunately the Babylonian Chronicles do not cover this period – the Chronicles between 594-553 BCE have not been found. Further background on the events are to be found in Jeremiah but unfortunately as Binyamin Lau laments in the introduction to his book “Jeremiah” – the Book of Jeremiah is hard to follow and it is as if the “original manuscript had been scattered and haphazardly rearranged.”[31] This article has followed the reordering of the pages and events as suggested by Lau.
Since the reading of the scroll by Baruch at the Temple in 604 BCE, during the reign of Jehoiakim, Jeremiah had not prophesied but with the advent of Zedekiah, Jeremiah resumed his prophecies which intensified and took on added urgency, desperation and foreboding in the run-down to the catastrophe. Jeremiah consistently preached that a pro-Babylonia policy should be adopted and exhorted the exiles in Babylon not to be deceived by false prophets promising the contrary (Jer 29). Jeremiah railed against attempts by Edom, Moab, Ammon, Sidon and Judah in 594 BCE to form an alliance with Egypt to jettison the vassalage of Babylon (Jer 27). He raged against Zedekiah warning him to: “Put your necks into the yoke of the king of Babylon and serve him and his people, so that you may live (Jer 27:12). The waxing and waning of Egyptian power over the period had a major deleterious impact on Judah, for when it waxed the pro-Egyptian faction became emboldened, making Jeremiah’s task more difficult and desperate.
The Bible records that neither Zedekiah nor his servant nor the people listened to the words spoken by Jeremiah (Jer 37:2). Zedekiah’s first appeal to Jeremiah was made after Jerusalem was besieged – he sent Jehucal son of Shelemiah and Zephaniah son of Maaseiah the priest to Jeremiah saying: “Please pray on our behalf unto Hashem, our God” (Jer 37:3). As the siege tightened, Zedekiah sent another delegation to Jeremiah in the hope of positive news but Jeremiah was unmoved – he provided no comfort and called on Zedekiah to surrender (Jer 21:9) for there would be no reprieve and Jerusalem was doomed (21:1-10). With only Azekah, Lachish and Jerusalem still under Judah’s control and the net closing in, Jeremiah requested to meet with Zedekiah and again warned him that the Babylonians would destroy Jerusalem (34:2).
The dire situation of Jerusalem was temporarily relieved when the Babylonians were required to deal with an Egyptian incursion: “Pharaoh’s army left Egypt, and the Chaldeans besieging Jerusalem heard, and they withdrew from Jerusalem” (37:5). No doubt the pro-Egyptian faction was delighted but Jeremiah reiterated his warning that Zedekiah should not delude himself – the Babylonians would return and destroy Jerusalem (Jer 37:8-9). With the Babylonians temporarily absent, Jeremiah was arrested under suspicion of collusion with Babylonia. He was briefly imprisoned and when brought before Zedekiah repeated his prophecy of the imminent destruction (Jer 37: 14-17).
Jeremiah continued to implore the people to surrender to Babylonia and as a result four senior officials, namely Shephatiah son of Mattan, Gedaliah son of Pashhur, Jehucal son of Shelemiah and Pashhur son of Malchiah urged Zedekiah to put him to death (Jer 38:1-4). With Zedekiah’s consent Jeremiah was thrown into a deep pit (Jer 38:5-6) from which Ebed-melech with Zedekiah consent saved him (Jer 38:7-10). At Zedekiah’s request the king and prophet met for what was destined to be the last time – once again Jeremiah disappointed a hopeful Zedekiah and echoed his well-worn words that only surrender will prevent the destruction of Jerusalem (Jer 38:18). Their conversation concluded with Zedekiah imploring Jeremiah to keep the meeting secret (Jer 38:24). This request by Zedekiah is strange and it would seem to be evidence of the pressure on Zedekiah to resist listening to pro-Babylonian viewpoints. Jeremiah remained in the prison yard until the day Jerusalem was captured (Jer 38:28).
In 2005 and 2008 respectively the seal impressions (bullae) of Jehucal son of Shelemiah and Gedaliah son of Pashhur (two of the four men who petitioned Zedekaih to put Jeremiah to death) were found in excavations in the City of David led by Israeli archaeologist Eilat Mazar.[32]
Nebuchadnezzar was not present in Jerusalem when the Temple was destroyed. That ignominious act was carried out by his infamous “chief executioner” Nebuzaradan (II Kings 25:9). Nebuzaradan’s arrival in Jerusalem is recorded as 7th Av (II Kings 25:8) whereas Jeremiah reflects this event as taking place on 10th Av (Jer 52:12-13). The Talmud attempts to resolve this apparent contradiction and provides the reason why Jewish tradition commemorates this date as 9th Av (Taanit 29a).
The Book of Jeremiah records that after the walls of Jerusalem were breached the officers of the king of Babylonia came and sat at the Middle Gate. Three of these officers are mentioned by name including Sarsekim who is referred to as the chief captain (Jer 39:3). A small tablet that was discovered near Baghdad records the name of Nebo-Sarsekim.[33]
Jeremiah had significantly more interactions with Zedekiah than he had with Josiah or Jehoiakim. Whilst Zedekiah appears to have respected Jeremiah and sought his counsel he did not take his advice. It seems likely that Zedekiah was a weak king and subject to significant pressure from his advisers, who opposed surrendering to the Babylonians.
Lachish Letters
The last three Judahite cities to be captured by the Babylonians were Azekah, Lachish and Jerusalem: “while the army of the king of Babylonia was besieging Jerusalem and all the remaining cities of Judah – Lachish and Azekah – for they alone remained of the fortified cities of Judah” (Jer 34:7).
Correspondence referred to as the “Lachish Letters” or “Lachish Ostraca” were discovered by British archaeologist James Starkey while excavating at Lachish in 1935. Eighteen letters were found in the guard room in the outer gate complex whilst a further three were found on the site making 21 in total. The letters were written in black ink on broken pieces of pottery and comprise correspondence from Hoshayahu to his superior Yaush who was probably the commander of Lachish. The location of Hoshayahu is not identified but it has been suggested that he was probably at the outpost of Mareshah.
The ostraca have been the subject of much academic debate as their context is unclear. Naftali Herz Tur-Sinai, Hebrew philologist and Bible scholar postulated that the letters were collected in the guard room for a military hearing[34] whereas Yigal Yadin speculated that they were merely drafts in the course of preparation.[35]
Letter No. 3 includes as follows: “And inasmuch as my lord said ‘Don’t you know how to read a letter?’ As YHWH lives, if anyone has ever tried to read me a letter! And as for every letter that comes to me, if I read it. And furthermore, I will grant it as nothing.”[36]
Academics debate whether the accusation directed at Hoshayahu was that he had read a letter that was not addressed to him (the common opinion) or whether he had not properly understood the contents of a letter sent to him.[37]
Letter No. 3 contains provides a tantalising reference to an unnamed prophet. At the time a number of prophets were active so it may or not be Jeremiah.
Letter No. 4 reads: “And may (my lord) be apprised that we are watching out for the fire signals of Lachish according to all the signs which the lord has given, but we cannot see Azekah.”[38]
This chilling words of Hoshayahu that the fire signals from Azekah can no longer be seen appears to report the dramatic news that Azekah has fallen to the Babylonians. Lachish would be next and then Jerusalem.
Lachish letter No. 6 bemoans that a letter sent to him has caused demoralization amongst the troops. “…kings [lette]r [and] the letters of the officer[s, sayin]g, ‘Please read!’ And behold, the words of the [officers] are not good; to weaken your hands [and to in]hibit the hands of the m[en]…”[39]
Irrespective of the true meaning of the Letters, William Albright described their significance as follows: “Most striking of all is the light thrown by the Lachish Ostraca on the script, spelling, and language of Jeremiah’s time.”[40]
Gedaliah
After the destruction of Jerusalem Nebuchadnezzar appointed Gedaliah son of Ahikam son of Shaphan as Governor of Judah (Jer 40:5). Gedaliah was a scion of a family that was part of Judah’s aristocracy – his father had served Jehoiakim and had been sufficiently powerful to protect Jeremiah from being killed (Jer 26:24), whereas his grandfather Shaphan had been a scribe in the administration of Josiah (II Kings 22:12). Gedaliah appealed to the people: “Do not be afraid of serving the Chaldeans; settle in the land and serve the king of Babylonia and it will be well with you” (Jer 40:9). The appointment of Gedaliah restored confidence and many of those who had fled to the surrounding territories returned to Judah (Jer. 40:12). Unfortunately the faction who opposed co-operation with Babylon and who wished to continue the struggle conspired against Gedaliah and Ishmael son of Nethaniah, who was of the “royal family”, together with ten other men murdered him (Jer 41:1-2).
In the wake of Gedaliah’s assassination the people of Judah panicked and feared retribution from Babylon. Despite Jeremiah’s assurances to the contrary (Jer. 42:10-18) they decamped (accompanied by an unwilling Jeremiah) to Egypt (Jer 43:6-7).
The assassination of Gedaliah extinguished any possibility for the continuation of a Jewish settlement in Judah in the immediate post First Temple period and this tragedy is commemorated annually (over 2,500 years later) by the Fast of Gedaliah. The profile and relevance of this fast day received increased recognition in recent times since the assassination of Yitzchak Rabin in 1995.
According to a Jewish tradition, Jeremiah ultimately landed up in Babylon – possibly after Nebuchadnezzar conquered Egypt in 570 BCE.[41]
The Attraction and Legacy of Jeremiah
Jeremiah’s prophecies comprise a litany of repetitive foretelling of a descent into a world of death, destruction, pestilence, despair, desolation and exile. While Jeremiah articulates the way to escape the disaster he knows that meeting the necessary conditions to avert the catastrophe will not happen – there will be no repentance and no return from the practice of abominations, wickedness, corruption, fraud, and falsehoods. As Jeremiah phrased it rhetorically: “Can an African change his skin [colour], or a Leopard its spots?” (Jer 13:23). Jeremiah complains to God about the thankless, lonely and doomed mission he has been tasked to perform, and laments the day he was born, and his sad and unhappy life filled with grief and distress that he has been destined to live.
The Book of Jeremiah contains none of the grand visions of hope and lyrical poetry that can be found in the Book of Isaiah and hence it is not surprising that, in the main, the early Zionists were inspired by Isaiah and had little time for Jeremiah. Perhaps the grandest, most rousing and most popular verse of Jeremiah contains his words that have been incorporated in the Sheva Berachot sung at weddings: “There will again be heard…in the cities of Judah and in the streets of Jerusalem…the sound of joy and the sound of gladness, the sound of the groom and the sound of the bride” (Jer. 33:10-11).
Despite much negative attitude towards Jeremiah, Israel’s first prime minister, David Ben-Gurion, entertained a contrary impression: “In my view, there is no doubt that the greatest prophet who arose during the monarchy period, before the destruction of Jerusalem, and also the most unfortunate, despised, and courageous was Jeremiah, as I have already noted above. He was not frightened by prison, by flogging and even by the threat of death itself. To the bitter end he chose to tell his people the bitter truth. He did, indeed, curse the day he was born, but continued, courageously, to utter bitter words of reproof to the people and the king, though the kings officers beat him, put him in prison, requested that he be put to death, and finally threw him into a pit without water – containing only mire, so that he might sink in it.”[42]
Ben Gurion concluded: “Jerusalem was sacked because King Zedekiah, son of Josiah, was not wise enough to listen to the advice of Jeremiah – perhaps the greatest statesman, and without doubt the bravest and most tragic of all the Literary Prophets.”[43]
Bernard Katz, a frequent contributor to Jewish Affairs is a Chartered Accountant who does freelance corporate finance advisory, investigations and sits on several boards.
NOTES
[1] Tadmor, Haim, Editor, The Biblical Encyclopaedia, Bialik Institute, Jerusalem, 1962, Volume 4, Columns 301-302
[2] Albright, W.F., The Biblical Period from Abraham to Ezra, Harper and Row, 1963, p79, quoted by Israel, Alex, II Kings, In a Whirlwind, Maggid Books, 2019, p320
[3] Ibid, quoting lecture given by Jacob Liver, p324
[4] Cogan, Mordechai, The Raging Torrent, Historical Inscriptions from Assyria and Babylonia Relating to Ancient Israel, A Carta Handbook, 2008, , p142
[5] Ibid, p131
[6] Ibid, p133
[7] Ibid, p136
[8] Israel, op cit, pp337-340
[9] Cogan, op cit, pp189-198
[10] Ibid, p191
[11] Ibid, p192
[12] Ibid, p193
[13] Ibid
[14] Ibid
[15] Lau, Benjamin, Jeremiah, The Fate of a Prophet, Maggid Books, Translated by Sara Daniel, 2013, p70
[16] Herodotus, The Histories, Translated by George Rawlinson, Digireads, 2016, pp221-222. Herodotus remarked that “I for my part do not believe them, but perhaps others may”
[17] Lau, op cit, p80
[18] Cogan, op cit, p199
[19] Ibid, p201
[20] Ibid, p200
[21] Ibid, p202
[22] Ibid, p203
[23] Mazar, Eilat, Did I Find King David’s Palace, Biblical Archaeology Review (BAR), January/ February 2006, Volume 32, Issue1
[24] Shanks, Hershel, Jeremiah’s Scribe and Confidant Speaks from a Hoard of Clay Bullae, BAR, September /October 1987, Volume 13, Issue 5
[25] Rollston, Christopher, The Bullae of Baruch ben Neriah the scribe and the seal of Maadanah Daughter of the King: Epigraphic Forgeries of the 20th Century, Eretz-Israel: Archaeological, Historical and Geographical Studies, Israel Exploration Society, Volume 32
[26] Cogan, op cit, p203
[27] Ibid, p204
[28] Lau, op cit, p82, Israel, op cit, p352, mikranet.cet.ac.il and correspondence with Alex Israel
[29] Barkay, Gabriel, Royal Palace, Royal Portrait, BAR, September/October 2006, Volume 32, #5
[30] Pritchard, James, Editor, The Ancient Near East, An Anthology of Texts and Pictures, Princeton University Press, 2011, pp274-5
[31] Lau, op cit, pxxi
[32] BAR, Strata: Seals of Jeremiah’s Captors Who Urged Imprisonment, September/October 2015, Volume 41, Issue 5
[33] Edwards, Brian, Anderson, Clive, Through the British Museum with the Bible, 3rd Edition, 2011, Day One Publications, p68
[34] Ahituv, Shmuel, Echoes from the Past, Hebrew and Cognate Inscriptions from the Biblical Period, A Carta Handbook, 2008, p58
[35] Borowski, Oded, Scholars’ Corner: Yadin Presents New Interpretation of the Famous Lachish Letters, BAR, March/April 1984, Volume 10, Issue 2
[36] Ahituv, op cit, p63
[37] Ibid, p58
[38] Ibid, p70
[39] Ibid, p80
[40] Albright, WF, The Archaeology of Palestine, Pelican Books, Revised and reprinted, 1960, p221
[41] Lau, op cit, p220
[42] Ben-Gurion, David, Ben-Gurion Looks at the Bible, Translated by Jonathan Kolatch, W.H. Allen, 1972, p307
[43] Ibid, p315
